Population and Environment Flashcards
What physical factors affect a sparse/small population
-Climate: Extreme temperatures, low annual precipitation, seasonal drought
- Soils: Permafrost, thin soils in mountains, soil erosion due to leaching and overgrazing
-Resources: energy and minerals in short supply
-water supply lacking in quantity or quality
What physical factors affect a large/dense
-Climate: temperate areas and even supply of sunshine
-Soils: Deep fertile soils in alluvial river basins
-Resources: energy and mineral resources readily accessible
-Reliable supply of good clean water
What are the Key population parameters
-Distribution
Describes the pattern of how population is spread over an area
The world has an uneven population distribution
-Density
-The number of people living in a certain area
-Usually measured in population per km2
-Numbers
The total amount of people living in an area
-Change
How population increases or decreases over time
Population is never static; the distribution, density and number is constantly evolving due
to various processes
Development processes describe what
how human societies advance over time due to technological change
Describe the Neolithic revolution
12,000 years ago, Development of farming practices and shift from small hunter-gatherer populations into larger, settled agricultural communities. More stable food supply leads to population growth
Describe the Industrial revolution
-1760 - 1850, With the invention of labour-saving machinery and discovery of large supplies of energy resources, manufacturing industry overtook agriculture as the largest sector of the economy in Britain and other major world powers
-People moved to cities in larger numbers and life expectancy increased as social
conditions (for e.g. sanitation and medicine) improved
-Many developing countries going through the same process today which leads to fast growing populations and urbanisation
Describe the green revolution
1960, Agricultural yields were maximised with new food technologies (e.g. hybrid seeds) and better farming techniques, particularly in less developed countries
More reliable food supply meant populations in developing countries increased quickly
How can Development processes reduce population totals
-Countries reaching an advanced stage with highly developed social systems mean life expectancy can be very high
-increasing proportion of the population is elderly so that death rates increase
-Population growth rate slows and in some cases total population falls
-Japan’s population is falling (2020 growth rate was -0.30%)
World population grew very ___ until 18th century
slowly until 18th century
From 10,000 BCE to 1700 CE the average growth rate was just 0.04% per year
____ growth in population since the mid 18th century
World population reached 8 billion in November 2022
Exponential
Despite the growth rate falling, world population is projected to continue to grow until approximately ___ when it could reach more than ___
2100, more than 11 billion
Approximately ___ of the world now lives in cities but this figure is projected to reach __by 2050 as urbanisation increases
The densest populations are in areas that have the most ___environmental conditions or where human development processes have occurred
55%, ,65%, favourable
Example of Population change rates vary with time
Global average growth rate has declined since around 1970
How does Population change rates vary over space
-Countries that went through Industrial Revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries
experienced rapid population growth. Today those countries are developed and their
growth rates have fallen. In some cases they have fallen so much that their total
populations are in decline (e.g. Japan)
-The fastest population growth today occurs in developing countries that are rapidly
industrialising
How has Global food production has changed over time
-Increased significantly in the last 50 years (three times more food is produced today than
in 1970)
-Due to more land being put aside to grow crops and technological advancements
increasing crop yields
Global food production is ___ distributed over space
unevenly, due to Physical factors (climate, soils, relief and water availability) influence how much food can be grown in some areas
Human factors (economic resources and investment in technology) also determine the pattern
Why has Global food consumption also increased significantly in recent years
-Linked to levels of development
-More highly developed countries can afford to invest in food production technology to increase yields and can also afford to import more food if it can’t be grown locally
-Consumption by lower income countries has also increased as they have developed, but total consumption by these countries is lower and increasingly more slowly than in developed countries
Agriculture is an example of an ___system
open, Contains inputs, outputs and processes that turn inputs into outputs
Also contains feedbacks
Inputs of Agricultural Systems
Physical - precipitation, temperature, relief, soil fertility, drainage
Human - Labour
Economic - Seeds, replacement stock, agrochemicals, mortgage, tax, machinery, fuel
Processes in Agricultural Systems
growing crops, rearing livestock, daily routines, hazard perception
Outputs of Agricultural Systems
Crops, livestock, livestock patterns
Feedbacks in agriculture systems
profit for reinvestment
manure for fertiliser
hay for fodder
Productivity in subsistence agriculture systems
Food is produced to feed family or community and only excess sold or traded. Often also extensive.
i.e…
Nomadic pastoralism, West Africa
Productivity in commercial agriculture systems
Crops grown or livestock raised to sell for profit, Often also intensive i.e.
Large agribusiness growing grain in North America
Cattle ranching in South America
High outputs
Productivity in intensive agriculture systems
High yields per area of land as a result of large investment in capital or labour.
Horticulture in Netherlands (capital intensive)
Rice cultivation in India (labour intensive)
High outputs
Productivity in extensive agriculture systems
Small inputs of capital or labour per area, leading to low yields i.e.
Sheep farming in Yorkshire Dales, UK
Low outputs
How is Agricultural productivity is influenced by climate
-Precipitation levels and distribution determine water availability for plants and livestock
Steady year-round rain gives an area the best chance to capture and store water required
-Extreme rainfall can damage crops and arid areas need to import water for crops to survive
-Maximum and minimum requirements for high yield depend on the crop variety but in general mean annual temperatures between 6°C and 25°C allow for highest productivity and longest growing seasons
-Higher temperatures require more water supply to replace that which is lost to evapotranspiration
-High winds can restrict the growth of plants, particularly in grain crops, but in some locations local wind patterns can be beneficial
-The ‘chinook’ is a warm wind that melts snow in the Prairies of North America, prolonging a cereal’s growing season
How is agriculture productivity affected by soils
-Level of nutrients in the soil varies across the world and different crop varieties require different soil characteristics to thrive
-Potatoes grown in the UK require the PH of the soil to be greater than 4
Other important soil characteristics are depth, structure, mineral content, moisture retention and aeration
-Soil degradation and soil erosion can decrease productivity
Characteristics and distribution of tropical mosoons
-The tropical monsoon climate is characterised by a distinct hot, wet (monsoon) season and a cooler dry season
-Temperature can average 30°C in the monsoon season and humidity is also very high
-Average rainfall is around 2000mm for the season (south-east UK receives just over 600mm per year)
-Cyclones (tropical storms) are frequent towards the end of the rainy season
What determines monsoon season
the annual movement of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
how does the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone work
-In south-east Asia, between May and October the ITCZ brings the strongest sun over the continental landmass, heating the land and causing large masses of air to rise in —low pressure zones.
-Moist, warm air from the Indian Ocean to the south-west gets sucked in to replace the rising air over the continent and this brings heavy monsoon rainfall
In November the ITCZ moves south and the process reverses so that cooler, drier air moves from the continent back towards the Indian Ocean
Where does the ITCZ occur
Occurs mainly on the eastern side of continents in the Tropics from about 5-20°N and S of the Equator
agriculture in monsoon regions relies heavily on what
the warm wet conditions and this can produce high yields and support large populations
More than ___ billion people live in the Asian countries that are visited by summer monsoon winds
4
How does monsoon season help local farms irrigate crops
Many areas in these countries do not have large irrigation systems but the summer monsoon rainfall fills aquiders and other groundwater stores for the rest of the year
What crops depend on monsoon season
-Rice and tea are some crops that rely on the summer monsoon
-Dairy farms, which help make India the largest milk producer in the world, also depend on the monsoon rains to feed the cows
How is the Industry and energy supplies fed by the monsoon climate system
-In India and Southeast Asia a large amount of electricity in the region is produced by hydroelectric power plants, which are driven by water collected during the monsoons.
-This electricity helps to power hospitals, schools, and industry and is as vital to the local economy as the crops the rain helps to grow
Characteristics and Distribution of polar tundra climate
-Polar climates cover 20% of the earth’s surface
-Found in both northern and southern hemispheres above 66° latitude
-Very low mean annual temperatures in all Polar regions, arctic:-40 — +10 (degrees)
and Antarctica:-80
-Precipitation levels less than 100mm per year in all polar regions, making them (polar) deserts
-Tundra refers to areas of permafrost that fringe the ice caps at both poles
Which countries can be found in polar regions
Northern Russia, northern Scandinavia, Greenland, Northern Canada
Continent of Antarctica to the South
Why is population low in polar tundra
Due to the harsh climate and thin soils, the polar tundra climate supports very low population numbers, despite its large area
Around __ million people live within the Arctic Circle
4
Examples of inhabitants
-The ten largest settlements are in northern Russia with Murmansk (300,000 people) being the biggest
-Small indigenous groups also occupy the region, such as the Innuit in northern Canada and Greenland, and the Sami of Northern Europe
-These groups migrate with the seasons to be close to food sources
Are there permanent residents in antartica
There are no permanent residents in Antarctica but some scientific research bases support small temporary populations of scientists in the summer months
What is agriculture like in these regions and why is it like this
-Agriculture is mainly subsistence, with low productivity
-Because crops struggle to grow in the thin, frozen soils, peoples’ diets are mainly meat-based and traditional methods of fishing, trapping and hunting secure supplies, alongside reindeer herding
Economic activities in polar tundra regions
-Development of buildings, roads and industry is restricted by the frozen ground and their design needs to be adapted so as not to melt the permafrost
-Cruise ships visit the regions during the summer months, bringing much needed income to local economies in the form of adventure tourism
-Commercial fishing and trade occurs in the Arctic during the summer months when sea ice melting allows shipping routes to be accessed
-Polar regions contain vast untapped reserves of oil, gas and other minerals and there is pressure on the regions to exploit these resources
How will climate change effect agriculture
-Distribution of tropical plant pests likely to widen
-Soil problems such as erosion, desertification, and salinization are projected to increase in some areas due to higher temperatures. This will continue to make arable land unusable. (On the flip side, thawing permafrost will increase agricultural productivity in colder regions)
-Rising sea levels due to melting sea ice is thought to cause flooding in low lying areas, such as Bangladesh, devastating crop yields
-
Examples of how climate change will effect agriculture
- In Asia, it is predicted that per 1°C temperature rise, rice yields will decrease by 20%.
- Severe droughts in East Africa are thought to be worsening due to global warming, especially in Kenya and Somalia. rainfall is becoming more scarce and unpredictable . In the past 10 years, 7 years have experienced severe droughts. With 70% of Africa’s agriculture being rainfed,
- Northern Europe and America may see increased productivity due to increased growing season
What are Zonal soil characteristics
-Soils form the layer between the bedrock and the surface of the ground
-They consist of weathered bedrock and decomposed organic matter from plants
-Climate is a key factor in how quickly bedrock weathers and organic matter decomposes
-Zonal soils form over long periods of time, typically taking 100 years for every inch of soil
-Cross profiles of soils show distinct layers, known as soil horizons
-Two examples of zonal soils are tropical red latosols and taiga podsols
Tropical Red Latosol is Located in ____ biome where weathering of bedrock and decomposition of plant matter rapid due to warm and humid climate, forming deep soils ___ metres thick
tropical rainforest, 30-40
Why does the tropical red latosol have a thick top horizon
High net primary production (NPP) due to high abundance of surface vegetation (leaf litter)
Why is the fertile layer of tropical red latosols thin
Leaf litter decomposes quickly into humus and nutrients are absorbed rapidly by rainforest vegetation
How does the soil gain its red colour
Leaching occurs downwards due to rainfall exceeding evapotranspiration rates, iron compounds are left behind in this layer
How is laterite horizon formed in tropical red latosols
build up of minerals in base layer forms a clay like substance
Why is crop growth hard in tropical regions
land cleared of areas of forest has a short lived nutrient supply in top layers
What sustainable farming practices do local indigenous people use
- Slash and burn techniques used ins small areas of forest add nutrients to the soil
-Crop rotation after 1 season allows a plot of land to recover and re-add nutrients to the soil
What is increasing land use competition in tropical rainforests
-urban growth
-cattle ranching
-cash crops increasing i.e. palm oil - 19,000 hectares
-laterite clay is a good building material
-timber
Where do Podsol (or Podzol) soils form
under coniferous woodland or heather moorland in taiga biomes (also known as boreal forest in North America)
Places podsols can be found
Occupies a large belt of land just south of the tundra biome of the Arctic Circle in North America, Northern Europe and Northern Russia
Why are podsols shallow (rarely greater than 1m)
Weathering of bedrock and decomposition of plant matter slow due to a cold winters and cool summers
Characteristics of layers of podsols
-surface layer - pine needles from coniferous trees
-Sub surface layer, thin and acidic. Evergreens do not take up nutrients so when pine needles fall they are nutrient poor, dark in colour
-precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration so surface water infiltrates and percolates causing downwards leaching, forming grey layer of sand and silt
-Leached minerals accumulate above bedrock in a hard pan of iron and aluminium
How do podsols influence human activities
-Limited crop growth due to acidic soils and limited nutrients
-Arable farming made possible in some regions using lime and artificial fertilisers
-Hard pan makes draining hard, so waterlogging is frequent -makes ploughing with heavy machinery difficult
-forestry is dominant industry in region
-low soil temps mean trees can take up to 100 years to reach maturity
-large areas deforested due to commercial logging - Europe has lost more than half of its forests in the past 6,000 years.
- podsols in coniferous forests support gaame in North UK - employs 2000, generates £150 million per year
What is Soil Erosion
Wearing away of fertile topsoil by wind and water
Causes of soil erosion
-Deforestation and overgrazing exposes soil
-Farming practices such as ploughing downslope can lead to rilling
-Relief as soil more likely to be washed away on steep slopes
-Climate as water erosion more likely after heavy rainfall and wind erosion more likely in very dry conditions
Impacts soil erosion has on agriculture
-Soil becomes less fertile as nutrients are removed
-Soil’s ability to retain water reduced
-Can cause rills and gullies that make the cultivation of paddocks impossible
-Results in lower yields and higher production costs
-Around 10 million hectares of land abandoned each year due to lack of crop productivity
How can people manage soil erosion
-Afforestation to allow roots to stabilise soil and return leaf litter nutrients - 360,000 trees were planted outside woodland equivalent to about 499 hectares of additional tree canopy in UK 22-23
-Fertilisers added to soils to improve nutrient content
-Rotate crops to allow soil to recover before planting again
-Planting natural windbreaks, such as hedges
-Ploughing across, rather than down, slopes
-Terracing on steep slopes
What is waterlogging
When pores between soil particles fill with stagnant water
Causes of waterlogging
-impermeable soils that have few pores, such as clay
-Heavy rainfall in areas where rates exceed evapotranspiration
-Over-irrigation
-Hard-pans can stop percolation and create an impermeable layer
How does waterlogging impact agriculture
-Gleying leads to soil infertility
-Rotting of plant roots
-Weeds outgrow crops as can survive waterlogged conditions better
-Reduced soil temperature leading to slower crop growth
How to manage waterlogging
-Improving field drainage
-Sustainable irrigation systems - drip, sprinkler, and micro spray reduce water loss
-Adding sand to clay soils to increase pore spaces
What is salinization
Accumulation of salt within soil
Natural causes of salinization
-High temperatures and low precipitation lead to high rates of evaporation so that salts left on ground surface
-Sea-level rise can draw salt up into soil in coastal areas
Human causes of salinization
-Over-abstraction of groundwater for irrigation leads to saltwater intrusion
-Over-irrigation of water containing dissolved salts
-Fertilisers containing salts left in soil i.e - Potassium chloride (potash) has the highest salt index among the common dry fertilizer products
Impact salinization has on agriculture
-3000-6000 ppm of salt can be toxic to plants
-Decreases osmotic potential of soil so plants can’t get required water
-Pea and bean crops particularly vulnerable
-Salinisation in San Joaquin Valley, California, projected to cost the state $1-1.5 billion
How can people manage salinization
-Drip-irrigation and soil moisture monitoring
-Selection of deep-rooted crops to increase water retention
-Soil flushing with water (although this moves problem elsewhere)
-Using fertilisers with low salt content
-Strategies to avoid waterlogging (as above)
What is Structural Deterioration
Pore spaces are lost as the structure of the soil is squeezed or collapses
Causes of structural deterioration
-Removal of vegetation so that roots no longer there to support the soil
-Soil compaction from heavy farm machinery or livestock trampling
-Salt in soil causes clumping together of clay particles
Impact structural deterioration has on agriculture
-Lack of space in soil for infiltration of water to occur so crops dry out quickly
-Plant roots unable to grow through compacted soil as they need air pockets to survive
-Farmers unable to till and plough the soil if it is too compacted
How can people manage structural deteriorations
-Avoiding use of heavy machinery
-Move livestock around to avoid compaction
-Introducing more organic matter into the soil to encourage the soil to aggregate together to increase number of pore spaces
What is Food Security
Refers to humans’ ability to access a diet of sufficient quantity and quality to meet their daily health needs and lead an active life
To assess food security, which dimensions should be considered
-Peoples’ physical availability of food
-Peoples’ physical and economic access to food
-The quality of the available food and how it is stored and prepared
Examples of Large spatial variations in food security
-North America, Europe, Japan and Australasia are the regions considered most food secure
-The greatest risk of food insecurity is in sub-Saharan Africa, Afghanistan and Haiti
what is increasing the risk to food security in many regions of the world
Climate change and growing population
How can people improve food supply by Improving agricultural productivity through technology
-Green revolutions since 1960 have introduced new crop varieties with higher yields, more mechanisation, better irrigation techniques, and new fertilisers and pesticides
Global rice yields have tripled since 1961, grain yields increased by 160%
-Development of hydroponics to allow food to be grown in new places
-Genetic modification of plants to make them more resistant to drought, pests and disease - golden rice
-Sustainable farming practices introduced and encouraged by NGOs and governments to improve longevity of food supply in vulnerable areas
How can Reducing food consumption and waste improve food security
-Improving storage, packaging and refrigeration facilities to make food last longer
-Educating farmers about crop loss prevention
-Encouraging consumers to cook and buy only what they need and to donate leftovers to food banks
-Better education about diet to tackle growing obesity crisis in the developed world
How can we increase access to food
-Free and fair trade rules to allow poorer countries to import food at fair prices
-Improving infrastructure to allow food to be transported to markets more efficiently and cheaply
How can organisations improve food security
-Social protection measures from governments and NGOs to reduce food poverty
-rants and food vouchers to vulnerable households
Free school meals for the most disadvantaged children
How do the global agriculture and food security program help people
Programme in Rwanda increased yields by 30% by teaching farmers sustainable techniques such as crop drying and compost
What is mortality
To do with death and dying
What is morbidity
The rate of disease in a population
Why do mortality rates vary
-In less developed countries this is due to poor socio-economic resources leading to lower life expectancy
-In developed countries this is due to higher life expectancies leading to ageing populations
-Infant mortality, case mortality and attack rate tend to be higher in developing countries with the highest rates generally in sub-Saharan Africa
What is healthy life expectancy (HALE)
refers to how long a person can be expected to live in good health without significant disease or injury, (used by the world health organisation)
2000 (HALE) average for Africa was ___ years
45.8
2019 figures for HALE at birth show a global average of 63.7 years with ____ ____(68.6) and ____ (68.3) having the highest regional average, and ____ (56.0) the lowest
Western ociana and Europe, Africa
Is Hale increasing or decreasing
HALE is increasing in every region of the world
Morbidity patterns vary according to two different types of illness:
Communicable and non communicable
Are Hics or Lics more prone to non communicable diseases and why
-Non-communicable disease is often more prevalent in HICs due to higher proportions of elderly population.
-Older people are more likely to suffer from some cancers and heart conditions
-Increasing affluence can lead to unhealthy lifestyles and sugary diets which can lead to a higher risk of developing cancer, diabetes and heart disease
Define communicable and non communicable diseases
-Non-communicable diseases - medical conditions that are not infectious such as asthma, cancer and heart disease
-Communicable diseases - infectious conditions that can be passed from person-to-person such as malaria, HIV/AIDS and coronavirus
Why are LICs are more likely to see higher rates of communicable disease
due to poor quality of water supply, less education around healthy lifestyles, poor quality of sanitation and health care
High rates of morbidity do / do not always translate into high rates of mortality, it depends on level and quality of healthcare and medicines i.e…
-do not
-In Africa 79 out of 100,000 got some form of cancer in 2012. In North America the figure was 510 out of 100,000
-But 55 out of 100,000 died from cancer in Africa, a 70% incidence to death rate In North America 197 died, a 39% incidence to death rate
An estimated ___% of disease risk comes from environmental factors; the rest comes from genetic factors
70-90
What is Infant mortality
the amount of infants that die per 1000 births
What Environmental Variables effect Incidence of Disease
Vector-borne diseases (VBD), Extreme weather events, Topography, Sunlight and Exposure, Water Quality, Air Quality,
How does the environment effect the incidence of vector borne disease
Vector-borne diseases are usually reliant on specific conditions that allow for the vectors to live and breed. High temperatures and access to water bodies
are needed for mosquitos to thrive, — prevalent in the region of the tropics
How does Extreme weather events effect the incidence of disease
-Some areas are more prone to environmental hazards than others
-events brings disease after they strike,
-Cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and diarrhoeal diseases all spread in water, meaning there are commonly outbreaks after floods and tropical storms
How does topography affect the incidence of disease
- Low-lying areas, especially floodplains and valleys next to steep hills, are particularly prone to water-borne disease.
-low-lying areas can have poor drainage, and can stagnant water can develop
-leading to disease associated with mould or contaminated water.
How can underexposure to sunlight increase the incidence of disease
-The lack of sunlight can cause deficiencies, especially a vitamin D deficiency. This is known to lead to bone pain, muscle weakness, and the disease rickets - Arctic
-Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) also correlates to geographical location. In general, areas that experience low daylight hours in winter months have higher rates of SAD.
i.e oslo in Norway has a 12.6% higher amount of SAD cases than Sarasota, Florida
How can overexposure to sunlight increase the incidence of disease
-can heighten the risk. Various types of skin cancer can develop from
overexposure to UV radiation, meaning areas that receive intense UV radiation have higher cancer cases.
-Australia has the highest skin cancer rates in the world, which is partly due to the high amounts of UV exposure it receives
About ___ Australians will be diagnosed with some form of skin cancer before the age of 70.
2 out of 3
How does water quality affect health
- Water-borne diseases when ingested cause illness, complications and sometimes death.
- Poor water quality leads to the prevalence of diarrhoeal diseases; diarrhoea is the second leading cause of death in children under 5 globally.
-people use the same water supply for dumping human waste, cleaning themselves, cleaning livestock, washing up, and drinking. Faecal matter in water supplies can cause illness and spread disease.
-Toxicants may also enter water supplies and have the potential to poison or kill - Factories may dump toxic waste into water supplies, or insecticides and pesticides can enter water supplies after rainfall
Example of a place effected by poor water quality
Isnapur Lake, which is located near several large drug
factories in Hyderabad, India
__% of the population live in areas of unsatisfactory air quality
91
Causes of Ambient Air Pollution
-Fossil fuel combustion from motor vehicles, heat
and power generation etc.
● Industrial facilities (e.g. manufacturing factories,
mines, and oil refineries)
● Waste sites or waste burning
● Use of polluting fuels in homes for cooking/ heating
Causes of household pollution
burning of polluting fuels inside households that are not properly ventilated which is
why household air pollution is majorly concentrated within LICs
-combined effects of ambient air pollution and household air pollution is associated with ___ million premature deaths annually.
-Household pollutants result in approximately __ billion people being exposed to dangerous levels
7, 2.4
Evidence also links air pollution to increased risk of:
Adverse pregnancy outcomes (low weight and small size at birth)
Cancers
Diabetes
Cognitive impairment
Neurological diseases
Diet and socio-economic factors also impact a person’s susceptibility to air pollution therefore….
which means that low- and middle-income countries suffer from the highest exposures and greatest disease risks
Who stats on water quality around the world
-Over 2 billion people live in regions suffering from water-stress. This is getting worse due to climate change and population growth.
-More than 2 billion people use a drinking water source contaminated with faeces
-Microbiologically contaminated drinking water is estimated to cause 485,000 deaths from diarrhoea each year
Poor quality of water for drinking, sanitation and hygiene also makes it difficult to..
prevent and manage other diseases prevalent in developing countries
The leading global agency promoting good health is the …
World Health Organisation (WHO)
Downsides of WHO
-Some felt it was too bureaucratic and lacked leadership on the front-line
-Failed to act decisively over China’s handling of the disease during the early days of the outbreak
-WHO was criticised during the Covid-19 pandemic
What does WHO do
-Original aims were to help combat malaria, women’s health, children’s health, tuberculosis (TB), venereal disease and sanitation conditions in the developing world
-Other major diseases added to its agenda since, including Ebola and HIV/AIDS
-147 countries and their governments are members and WHO advises them on vaccines, research, instruction and assistance with clean water programmes, and treatment of communicable and non-communicable diseases
-WHO works with other UN agencies and NGOs to manage international health issues and pandemics
Notable success of WHO
Notable successes of WHO have been the complete eradication of smallpox in the 1970s and the Global Polio Eradication Initiative which, since 1988 has reduced cases of polio by 99%
What are Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
non-profit bodies working separately and independently from any governments
Typical downsides of NGOs
-NGOs sometimes lack the resources of larger international organisations and governments and they rely on donations and aid from richer countries
-This can limit the impact they make on the global healthcare system
-NGOs mostly have charitable status such as Oxfam and Médecins Sans Frontières
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is an___
NGO founded by the co-founder of Microsoft and his wife in 2000
About the Bill and Melinda gates foundation
-Bill Gates started the foundation with $1 billion of his own money and he and his wife have since donated more than $36 billion
-Its focus is on increasing health and reducing extreme poverty across the world
-The foundation funds food security and healthcare programmes around the world
Stats since the BaM gates foundation was set up
-In 2010 it donated $19.9 million to the International Rice Research Institute to support the increasing world demand for rice
-It has partnered with the Rockefeller Foundation, donating $100 million to enhance agricultural science and small-farm productivity in Africa to support the green revolution
-In 2005 it launched the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene program which now focuses on sanitation and education around water hygiene in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia
-Amongst the hundreds of grants to healthcare programmes one of the biggest has been $1.75 billion to accelerate development and distribution of COVID-19 tests, treatments, and vaccines since 2020
Deaths caused by AIDS, TB and malaria each year have been reduced by nearly __% since 2002 in countries where the gates foundation invests
50
Prevalence of asthma
-Asthma is a non-communicable (non-infectious) chronic (long-term) lung disease found in all countries of the world
-It affects both children and adults, and is the most common chronic disease among children
Asthma stats
-World Health Organisation (WHO) data shows asthma affected an estimated 262 million people in 2019 and caused 455,000 deaths
-Relatively low mortality rate - responsible for less than 1% of worldwide deaths each year
Asthma used to be ____ prevalent in HICs but deaths from asthma in low and lower-middle income countries now much ___
more , greater
__% of children globally suffer from asthma
-14
(Also prevalent in the 75-79 age group)
Physical or environmental triggers of asthma
-Cold and damp air
-Allergens and irritants such as air pollution, pollen, house dust mites, moulds, and exposure to chemicals, fumes or dust in the workplace
-Time of year - allergens such as pollen more common in summer months
-Events in early childhood that affect the developing lungs such as Low birth weight and exposure to tobacco smoke
Socio-economic triggers of asthma
-Obesity - studies of diet in children have shown that teenagers eating three or more servings of fast food are 39% more likely to develop severe asthma
-Psychological stress
-Smoking
-Hygiene - asthma has reduced in more affluent countries where sanitation levels have increased
-Genetics. Asthma more common in children whose family members have the disease
-Links to other allergic conditions such as hayfever and eczema
- living in urban areas
Impacts of asthma on health
-Asthma attacks cause shortness of breath and coughing as the bronchial tubes in the lungs are restricted
If attacks are not treated they can lead to death
-Asthma is a lifetime burden as it starts to take effect in younger age-groups than in other chronic conditions such as heart disease
-Asthma sufferers can be less productive at school and work, so educational and career outcomes can be hampered
-The impacts of asthma affect all countries but are most severe in LICs and low-middle income countries as diagnosis and treatments are often less widespread and effective in less affluent regions
How does ethnicity appears to be a factor
-Mortality amongst African Americans in US is three times higher than amongst white populations
-Correlates strongly with areas of poverty, particularly in urban areas with poor air quality and less effective healthcare
Economic costs of asthma
-Treatment of the disease costs governments
In the UK £1 billion is spent annually by the NHS on asthma care and treatment
-Asthma is one of the leading causes of work absenteeism in US
Direct and indirect costs to the US economy have been estimated at more than $50 billion per year
How can asthma be mitigated
- two types of inhaler - bronchodilators which open up airways and steroids which reduce inflammation
- education about triggers and treatments and how to manage symptoms
-avoiding environmental triggers
-Raising community awareness so people are able to spot an attack
-Global alliance against respiratory diseases (GARD) contribute to WHOs work to reduce attacks by allowing member countries to come together and group resources and expertise
-Global initiative for asthma (GINA) aims to promote awareness through a world asthma day each year
When does natural population change occur
when birth and death rates differ in a place
-If birth rates are higher than death rates then there will be a natural increase
-If death rates are higher than birth rates there will be a natural decrease
Population also changes when people….
migrate into and out of an area
Population change is also influenced by the following key vital rates:
Fertility rate
Infant mortality rate
Replacement level
Net production rate
What is net production rate
The average number of female births a women has in a given area
define replacement level
Then number of births needed per women to keep the population the same size assuming there is no migration
List factors that contribute to high death rates:
-Poverty and low levels of socio-economic development
-Poor medical infrastructure
-Poor nutrition
-Lack of clean water supply
-Poor sanitation
How can cultural controls such as gender lead to higher rates of fertility and births:
-Some societies, such as those in rural parts of LICs like Niger, prefer male children so that they can contribute more to family income
-This leads to more births as parents will keep having children until they have more than one boy
-Discrimination against women in some cultures leads to lack of education and less chance of a career
-Therefore women are likely to have more children at younger ages
How can cultural controls such as marriage tradition lead to higher rates of fertility and births:
-The younger a woman marries, the more children she is likely to have
-In Niger 75% of girls marry before the age of 18
-Fertility rates in Niger were 6.9 in 2020, one of the highest rates in the world
How can cultural controls such as religion lead to higher rates of fertility and births:
Some faiths, such as Roman Catholicism, oppose contraception which can put a check on fertility and birth rates
How can cultural controls such as political policies lead to higher rates of fertility and births:
-Governments concerned about overpopulation can introduce policies of population control i.e.
China operated a ‘one-child policy’ from 1979-2015
-The Indian state of Kerala has invested in girls education since 1980s
This helped bring down the fertility rate in the state down from over 5 to 1.8 in 2021
What does the demographic transition model describe
-as countries develop, changes in birth and death rates subsequently affect population
-It showed how Western Europe and North America had gone through four stages of change since the start of the industrial revolution
-Now a fifth stage has been added
Strengths of the DTM include
-It can be easily applied to different settings
-It can help demographers plan for predicted future changes
Limitations of the DTM include:
-It fails to take into account migration, natural disasters, pandemics, wars and government policies that impact birth rates, e.g. China’s one-child policy
-It is based on countries in Western Europe that industrialised between 1800-1950
-So it is harder to apply to newly emerging economies today that are industrialising in shorter time-frames due to globalisation
Describe stage 1 of the DTM
- Stable pop change
-High birth rate - Lack of birth control; poor education around family planning; lots of children born to replace those that die due to high infant mortality rates; children needed to help work on the land
-High death rate - Poor medical care, lack of sanitation, poor diets and high rates of disease
-i.e. Remote tribal groups in Amazon rainforest
Describe stage 2 of the DTM
-Very fast natural increase
-High BR - same as stage 1
-DR starts falling quickly - Improved sanitation, medical care and food and water supply
-Poorest LICs, such as Gambia, Mali, and Niger. E.g., in 2022, Niger’s BR was 44/1000 and its DR was 7.5/1000,
Describe stage 3 of the DTM
- Increase slows
-BR Falls quickly -Improvements in family planning, birth control and infant mortality rate
-DR Still falling but slower- same as stage 2
-i.e Fast-industrialising countries such as India, Brazil, and Mexico.
Describe stage 4 of the DTM
- Very slow increase in pop
-BR Falls further and remains low - Further availability of contraception and career advancement for women so children turn from economic asset to burden
-DR low -Reliable food supply and healthcare established
i.e. HICs such as the UK and USA
Describe stage 5 of the DTM
-pop naturally decreases
- BR - Falls very low and below DR - More elderly population so smaller proportion of women of reproductive age
- DR - Climbs slightly higher than BR - The ageing population has a higher proportion of people reaching life expectancy
- Japan
Another factor of population change is population structure, sometimes known as
the age-sex composition which Can be shown in a population pyramid
Population pyramids of places change over time show..
-They show a place’s population structure at one point in time
-The shape of the pyramid changes as a country moves through the stages of the demographic transition model
What is the dependency ratio
proportion of population between 0-14 and 65 and above compared to 15-64
Define The Demographic Dividend
describes how when a country’s dependency ratio falls quickly it goes through a period of fast economic growth
Population structures and pyramids can be divided into which three age-group categories
-Young dependents - from 0-14 years, they rely on their economically active parents to support them
-Economically active - from 15-64 years, they are the working population who earn income, pay taxes and contribute to the support of the young and elderly
-Elderly dependent - from 65 years onwards, they are no longer economically active and so rely on support from the state and younger family members
formula for dependency ratio
= (young dependents + old dependents) / working population x 100
When is dependency ratio high
-Very high in LICs in stage 2 of the demographic transition model Due to youthful population structure with many young dependents
-High in advanced HICs in stage 4 and 5 of the demographic transition model Due to a large elderly dependent sector of the population
When is dependency ratio low
-Lower in newly emerging economies in stage 3 of the demographic transition model Due to few elderly dependents because previously there was low life expectancy, Also due to small number of young dependents because birth rates are falling
Countries going from stage 2 to 3 with falling dependency ratios have a chance of an ___due to the demographic dividend
-economic boost
-This also requires political stability and investment in education and jobs
Migration is
the movement of people from one place to another to live, sometimes called unnatural change
Internal migration happens at a local scale…
Within a country
It doesn’t affect total population of that country
It does affect local population size
International migration occurs at larger scales…
-More in-migration than out-migration leads to a positive net migration and population growth (assuming birth and death rates remain stable)
-A negative net migration happens when out-migration exceeds in-migration (assuming birth and death rates remain stable)
Why does International migration occur
-Voluntary migrants are often economic migrants seeking better jobs and standard of living
Other migrants feel as though they have no choice but to leave their country of origin
-Some flee across borders because they fear death or persecution from war, natural disasters, religious or political persecution
-They apply for ‘asylum’ in a host country and whilst the application is being considered they are
known as asylum seekers
-If their application is successful they may be granted temporary or permanent residency.
Legally they now become refugees
define an asylum seeker
someone who fled there country of origin and is applying to be a refugee in the host country
Define a refugee
someone who fled their country of origin and their application for asylum was accepted
Environmental push Factors
-Natural disasters - 23.7 million migrated due to extreme weather and natural disasters around the world in 2021
-Climate change impacts such as rising sea levels, drought and poor water supply - in 2008 the government of the Maldives, worried about sea level rise, investigated the buying of a new homeland in Sri Lanka to re-house its population
Environmental pull Factors
-More stable climate where farming is more productive and food supplies more reliable
- extreme weather events and other natural disasters are are less common
Socio-economic push Factors
-War - 8.1 million refugees were recorded leaving Ukraine in 2022
-Political, Religious and Ethnic persecution - more than 1 million Rohingya people now live in Bangladesh after fleeing persecution in neighbouring Myanmar
-Unemployment, low wages and poor working conditions
-Extreme poverty
-Poor healthcare, education and other public services
Socio-economic pull Factors
-Religious freedom and political stability
-Good access to healthcare and education and other public services
-Higher wages and better job prospects
Lee’s Push-Pull Model of Migration shows
-places of origin have both positive reasons to stay and negative reasons to leave (push factors) If the negatives outnumber the positives people might decide to migrate
-The destination country also has positives (pull factors) and negatives
-The more positives there are, the more attraction it has for migrants
-Migrants leave because of both push and pull factors
-When deciding whether to leave, and then on their journey, migrants face various challenges (intervening obstacles) and processes
Challenges migrants face and what it makes the do
Costs of travel
Family pressure to stay
Physical barriers such as distance, seas and mountains
Human traffickers and smugglers
Difficulty with new languages and filling out paperwork
Government policy on immigration
Border controls
these obstacles and processes mean that migration happens in steps
Migrants may make several smaller journeys and stay in temporary accommodation before they reach their final destination
___has increased the movement of migrants around the world and is an important flow within the global economy, (stats)
globalisation
In 1970 approximately 90 million people were living in a country they weren’t born in
In 1990 that figure had increased to approximately 153 million
In 2020 it was estimated to be 281 million
demographic and environmental Implications for countries of origin after migration
Migrants often of child-bearing age so birth rates fall
Population decline
Ageing population left behind which can increase death rates
Loss of workforce
Less pressure on natural resources and land
Dereliction of abandoned communities
demographic and environmental Implications for countries of destination after migration
increase in birth rates
Population growth
Can balance an ageing population structure
Increases population of working age
Migrants may bring new knowledge of sustainable land management techniques
More pressure on natural resources and land
More pollution and deforestation
social and economic Implications for countries of origin after migration
-Less pressure on services such as healthcare and education
-More jobs available in some industries that migrants have vacated
-Migrants may return with new cultural awareness
-Family dislocation
-Loss of traditions
-Migrants send newly earned money home in the form of remittances. This can be an important contributor to the economy
-Returning migrants bring new skills to the workplace
-A ‘brain drain’ in some industries as skilled workers move abroad
-Productivity in the economy may fall with a reduced workforce
-Less investment in services with fewer people using them
social Implications for countries of destination after migration
New cultures can bring tolerance and new experiences
Dilution of local cultures and traditions
Grouping of migrants in urban areas can lead to segregation and intolerance
More pressure on social services, jobs and housing
economic Implications for countries of destination after migration
-Gaps in the workforce, both skilled and unskilled, filled by willing migrants
-Increased workforce leads to rise in economic productivity and subsequent development
-Requirement for more housing and other services leads to creation of more jobs
-Wages driven down and possible unemployment for local workers by competition from migrants
-Money leaks out of the economy through remittance payments
-Extra cost of having to provide more services and housing to migrants
health and political Implications for countries of origin after migration
Governments may need to implement policies to increase birth rates (so called pro-natal policies)
Pressure on government resources to address all the negative impacts of out-migration
Healthcare resources can be spread more widely as fewer people requiring treatment
Older migrants vulnerable to degenerative (non-communicable) diseases retiring abroad
Higher proportion of more medically vulnerable population (very young and very old) left behind
health and political Implications for countries of destination after migration
Migrants bringing new skills and ideas to the healthcare workforce
Infectious (communicable) diseases can be spread more easily leading to more pressure on destination health services
Older immigrants requiring treatment for degenerative (non-communicable) diseases
Refugees and asylum seekers likely to need support and treatment for physical and mental illness due to traumatic journeys
Pressure on governments to control immigration so that it has more positives than negatives
Growth of anti-immigrant feeling and racial extremism needs to be dealt with
What does The concept of population ecology refer to
how humans interact with their environment to change in number over space and time
Countries aim to achieve a perfect balance between population and resources, known as optimum population which is…
the perfect balance between population and resource balance which leads to the highest standard of living
An imbalance between population and resources leads to…
overpopulation or underpopulation
What are limiting factors and how have humans overcome these
environmental factors E.g disease and food supply
Humans have overcome these by finding Medicines and vaccines to reduce or control rates of disease
Technology to increase food supply to allow for population growth
Is optimum population easy for a place to achieve
optimum population is difficult for a place to achieve for any significant length of time.
How can Population structure impact the population and resource balance
Countries with a low dependency ratio are more likely to develop resources efficiently and so:
Achieve economic growth, Have an increased standard of living, Allow a rise in population to be supported
Where as, Countries with a high dependency ratio will spend precious resources on looking after the elderly or young dependents and so will struggle to: Grow the economy, Support a population increase without negative social and economic issues
What is carrying capacity
The maximum stable population size that an environment can support is known as the carrying capacity
The size of the Earth’s carrying capacity is determined by:
Size of the population
Level of resource consumption - i.e industrialising countries are usually unsustainable
Technological innovation
Level of wealth
Wealthier countries usually have a larger carrying capacity than poorer countries because:
They export waste to poorer countries
They import products from poorer countries
This means that although poorer countries use fewer resources, they are supporting the resource use of the richer countries
What is ecological footprint
is a measure of a person’s or group’s use of natural resources
It is the amount of global heactares (gha) available for use by each person on the planet
-It also shows the demand each person puts on the Earth’s biosphere
-It forms a part of a person’s carbon footprint
Ecological footprints are hugely ___ around the world
uneven
Much higher in developed countries - USA 15.5 gha per person
In developing countries they are lower - Haiti 0.7gha per person
Calculations suggest the world is in a state of overshoot, using the equivalent of __ Earth’s worth of resources
1.6
With population predicted to increase to around 9-10 billion by 2050 even more ‘Earths’ will be required unless more sustainable resource use strategies are put in place
This may act as a natural ‘check’ on global population growth
What are Other implications of changes to the carrying capacity and ecological footprint include:
Destruction of ecosystems such as forests and coral reefs with knock-on effects of extinction of plant and animal species
Climate change
Deforestation and changes of land use for growing urban areas, transport and industrial development
Reduction of availability and quality of fresh water
Reduction in soil quality through erosion leading to crop and food shortages
The population, resources and pollution model conveys…
the relationship between humans and their environment
Positive feedback examples in the population, resources and pollution model
Population increase → increase demand for resources → more resources acquired → resources enhance survival and support further increase in population
Population increase → more fossil fuel extraction → more fuel for transporting food more easily around the world → diets improve reducing death rates → population increases further
Impacts of these positive feedback loops
If these positive feedback loops continue unchecked they may cause resource depletion and environmental damage as population overshoots the earth’s carrying capacity
negative feedback examples in the population, resources and pollution model
Population increase → increase demand for resources → more resources acquired → pollution and environmental damage increases → decline in population as death rates rise
Population increase → more food resources required and acquired → increased environmental degradation of soils (soil erosion) → crop yields and agricultural productivity falls → less food, so population declines
What are Malthusian (and neo-Malthusian) perspectives on population
-Negative
-Population increases exponentially, but resources only increase
linearly, meaning the population would eventually
run out of food and resources, and decrease as a
result
How did Malthus also describe how the population will decrease
positive and preventative checks when population becomes
too high.
-Positive check: disease, war, famine - a disaster that significantly reduces a population.
-Preventative check: a cultural choice to lower population, such as choosing not to have children
as you will not be able to support them.
What is Club of Rome Limits to Growth (1972)
An extended and more complicated version of Malthus’ theory. Overall it shows that there is a
limit to the amount of people, pollution, services, food production etc, eventually
leading to a large increase in death rates.
What are the positive population perspectives
● Boserup: Boserup’s theory is that no matter how large population grows, the population
will always discover new ways to sustain food supplies , such as new technologies and
systems.
● Simon: Supporting of Boserup, Simon’s theory is that humans are ‘the ultimate
resource’, and in spite of finite resources, humans will come up with new ways to sustain
resources
What is ozone depletion
-Depletion of the layer of ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere, from 15-30 km high
-Ozone is a gas that protects the earth from the Sun’s shortwave ultraviolet radiation (UVR)
-In the 1980s scientists discovered thinning of the ozone layer and holes above Antarctica and the Arctic
-caused by damage from chlorofluorocarbons such as chlorine,Heavy industry, fridges
Impacts of ozone depletion (UV)
-Increased exposure to UVR in humans is a health risk and can lead to increased rates of skin cancer
- Higher rates of melanoma skin cancer at higher latitudes
-In 2020 Australia had 37 incidences of skin cancer for every 100,000 population, compared to a
global average rate of 3.4 per 100,000
-Skin cancer is the 17th most common cancer worldwide
-Globally, cases of melanoma skin cancer are predicted to rise by 18% between 2018-2025
How are we trying to manage the impacts of ozone depletion
-CFC emissions have been reduced by 99% since 196 countries signed the Montreal Protocol in 1987
-A later amendment at a summit in Copenhagen in 1992 tightened restrictions further
-The layer is recovering but will take another 50 years to fully thicken to original levels
More impacts of ozone depletion
-Cataracts lead to blurred vision caused by the lens of the eye becoming cloudy
-Causes blindness in approximately 20 million people worldwide each year
How is the risk of skin cancer/ cataracts increased
-Geographic location
-Tropical areas have higher levels of UVR, although high latitudes can also be high risk due to
less ozone protection
-More exposure in open spaces with reflective surfaces such as sand and snow
-Less exposure in urban areas as there is more shade
-Time of day
-Higher risk of exposure between 10am-2pm when the sun is most directly overhead
-Altitude
-At higher altitudes less atmosphere is available to absorb UVR
-With every 1000m in altitude, UVR levels increase by approximately 10%
The World Health Organisation (WHO) predicts that by 2050 climate change will be responsible for an extra ___ deaths worldwide each year
250,000
How will climate change effect non communicable diseases
Thermal Stress As global temperatures rise, so does the prevalence and risk of
intense heat waves .
Overheating can cause heat stroke and other forms of hyperthermia, which can quickly become
fatal.
Deaths from heat waves in Australian cities is set to ___over the next 40 years
double
How will climate change effect communicable diseases
Vector-borne diseases: With climate change comes altering weather patterns and a rise
in extreme weather event, diseases are becoming more widely distributed, and the seasons in which they are a risk have lengthened.
How will climate change effect communicable diseases (example)
-Lyme disease is an example of a vector-borne disease being influenced by climate
change. Lyme disease is a tick-borne disease. In North East USA especially, warmer
temperatures have significantly influenced tick behavioural pattern
-Larger area at risk - as temperatures and humidity change, a larger area of the NE
becomes the perfect weather for tick breeding and development.
-Active for longer - warmer temperatures cause the nymphs to become active
earlier in the year , meaning they are around for longer, and can pass the disease
on for more months of the year
-More hosts - hosts for the tick, e.g. mice, have better survival rates than previous
years due to the warmer temperatures
How will climate change effect Agricultural productivity and nutritional standards
-Due to the lack of food available, and also the lack of variety of food when crops fail,
widespread malnutrition and famines are common.
● Deficiencies due to a lack in variety in food, causing diseases like rickets.
● People cannot afford to be picky when there is less food available, meaning many eat poor
quality food, causing diseases such as diarrhoeal diseases.
● In areas where biologically transmitted diseases are common , malnutrition makes
people less able to fight the disease
-
What can happen when agricultural yields fail due to climate change (example LIC)
When agricultural yields fail, food prices can increase dramatically, in 2016 maize prices in Malawi were 192% higher than the five-year average (many crops failed due to the extreme climatic event El Niño)
Why might population decline after 2085
-A decline in fertility rate
-Predicted to decline from a global average of 2.5 today to 2 children per woman in 2100
-The fertility replacement rate is 2.1 to allow for infant mortality, so a rate below that means
population will fall
Why is population increasing
An increase in life expectancy
Better healthcare and standard of living mean more people are living for longer
Why are Future total population predictions are problematic
-They rely on current trends continuing
-Political agendas in some areas might bring in anti- or pro-natalist policies which impact birth rates
-E.g. Singapore and Japan currently have policies in place to encourage people to have more
children to lower their dependency ratios
-Don’t take external factors into consideration i.e. wars and disease
What is demographic dividend
When a countries dependency ratio drops in a very short period of time allowing for an economic boost to happen
Many more countries will move into stage ____ of the demographic transition model and have ageing populations
4 and 5
12% of global population was aged over 60 in 2015
Predicted to rise to 25% by 2050 (excluding Africa)
In the developed world what is likely to happen to the population
-The population of many European countries, such as Germany and Russia, are likely to decline
-Japan too is facing a declining population
-This will leave high elderly dependent populations with high dependency ratios
-Life expectancy will continue to increase
-A shrinking population of working-age people will be relied on to pay for the elderly, for example
through taxes to pay for pensions
How can population structures be managed I.e
-In 2022, the Japanese government announced plans to provide an additional US$592 to couples who have a child -Critics argue this won’t be enough to turn the problem around
-
How can governments utilise encouraging immigration of working age
-In 2020 the UK government introduced a points-based immigration system to encourage workers, including agricultural workers, truck drivers, and nurses, to help fill labour gaps
-However, immigration policies can be politically unpopular
Japan has a poor record of immigration integration
-Republican policy in the USA has resisted Mexican immigration
What are population issues in the developed world
-Very fast transitions through the stages of the demographic transition model
-The fertility rates of China and Brazil decreased from 6 to 2 in just 30 years
-The same took 80 years in the UK
Management of population in LICs and NEEs is increasingly focusing on the role of ____
education
-Educating women is one of the best ways to bring down fertility rates quickly
-Giving women the opportunity to have careers reduces the time available to them to have children
-In Ghana, women with a high school education have an average fertility rate of 2.5, whereas
the rate for those with no education is 6
-However, progress in educating women in some sub-saharan African countries is slow
High costs to the government and corrupt governance is to blame
Other strategies for future population-environment management centre around ____
resource consumption
-Sustainable development of agricultural practices and energy production to conserve scarce resources and manage the supply
-Investment into renewable energy technology will bring costs down and make renewable energy more viable for poorer countries
-Government policies to reduce and conserve resource consumption
-E,g, following up on the commitments set at the COP summits in Paris and Egypt
