pompeii and herculaneum

Question 1

what is the geographical setting of Campania?

Answer 1

Campania is located to the east of the Bay of Naples, in southern Italy

Question 2

what are the natural features of Campania?

Answer 2

• highly fertile region; important producer of food, wine and wool
• pleasant temperature throughout the year
• famous residents of Rome would holiday there
• economic centre of Italy
• Pompeii located on the Sarno River; could trade inland
• land situated on volcanic rock
• volcanic soil led to large amounts of agriculture; grapes (wine), olives, lentils, beans, fruits, flowers (mentioned by Pliny)

Question 3

what are pyroclastic density currents (PDCs)?

Answer 3

pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), also known as pyroclastic flows and surges, are moving walls of volcanic material that progress at different paces depending on their density

Question 4

what impact did the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius have on Pompeii?

Answer 4

the eruption of Mount Vesuvius is known as a ‘Plinian eruption’ as it was documented by Pliny the Younger; the wind from the first Plinian phase of the eruption blew wind away from Herculaneum and onto Pompeii, meaning Pompeii faced more severe damage in the earlier stages of the eruption, which removed second storeys of its buildings; Herculaneum faced damage from earlier stages of the eruption than Pompeii, meaning that most Pompeiians were killed in the fourth surge of the eruption, and the landscape was flattened in the sixth surge

Question 5

what impact did the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius have on Herculaneum?

Answer 5

the first Plinian phase of the eruption, referred to as an ‘umbrella pine’ by Pliny the Younger blew wind away from Herculaneum, however it faced damage from earlier surges than Pompeii; many Herculaneans died in the first surge and the landscape faced much damage; these surges covered Herculaneum with superheated mud that then hardened, meaning the site has to be mined to be excavated, and thus making it considerably more difficult to excavate than Pompeii

Question 6

where does the evidence surrounding the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius come from?

Answer 6

the eruption of Mount Vesuvius was best recorded by Pliny the Younger, who described the eruption in two letters to the historian Tacitus- in which he describes seeing, “broad sheets of fire and leaping flames”- along with archaeological evidence, such as the layer of ash that managed to preserve many features of the towns affected by the eruption

Question 7

what were the early discoveries from the 19th and 20th century excavations of the sites?

Answer 7

• Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875) - mapped regions to give systematic view of the site, gave street names, excavated room-by-room to maintain integrity of buildings’ walls, used wet plaster to fill in cavities made in the solidified volcanic rock and ash by human remains
• August Mau (1882) - categorised Roman artworks into four styles which evolved over time
• Vittorio Spinazzola (1911-1924) - excavated streetscape along the Via dell’Abbondanza rather than houses, reconstucted upper floors of houses and shop fronts, photographed each stage of excavation
• Amedeo Maiuri (1924-1961) - funded excavations to both sites under Mussolini
• Fausto Zevi (1977) - suspended all excavations on state-owned land, devoted resources to conservation and recording

Question 8

how did the nature of the excavations change in the 19th and 20th centuries?

Answer 8

• the first excavations of the sites had the purpose of finding artefacts to give to kings, meaning many artefacts and remains were discarded and destroyed
• Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875) - removed ambiguities in excavation, released monthly publications of excavation work
• August Mau (1882) - work still forms the basis of artwork studies of Roman paintings, helped to date buildings on sites
• Vittorio Spinazzola (1911-1924) - gave a better idea of appearance of Pompeian streets, revealed what upper storeys may have looked like, provided aesthetic appreciation of streetscapes including art and graffiti
• Amedeo Maiuri (1924-1961) - constructed many ‘frozen in time’ reconstructions of shops and houses
• Fausto Zavi (1977) - helped conservation efforts by stopping excavation
• excavations today are considerably more scientific so as to not further damage the sites

Question 9

how have representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum changed over time?

Answer 9

• the first representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum arise from Renaissance artworks; classical heroism, Romanticism, realism
• there are also representations from this era in literature, that depicted the last days as a tragedy story
• ‘Pompeii’ (2014) movie
• ‘Pompeii’ by Robert Harris (2003); novel that blends historical fiction with the real eruption
• ‘The Last Days of Pompeii’ by Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1834); novel inspired by the painting ‘The Last Day of Pompeii’ by Karl Briullov

Question 10

what sources are available to give information about Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 10

• human remains: whole skeletons, bones and plaster and resin casts
• decorative arts: architecture
• epigraphic: formal inscriptions on bronze, marble and stone- civic charters, epigraphs, dedications, wall writings, electoral slogans, gladiatorial programs, rentals and sales, wide range of graffiti
• literary: Pliny the Elder, Seneca, Strabo, Vitruvius, Tacitus, Livy, Cicero, Dio Cassius, Pliny the Younger
• everyday objects: wax tablets, roll of Papyri

Question 11

what evidence is there for the streetscapes of Pompeii?

Answer 11

a major road of Pompeii is the Via dell’Abbondanza, which runs along the east side of the city that was used primarily at night to deliver goods to different parts of the city, and connected the forum to the amphitheatre and palaestra

Question 12

what evidence is there for the streetscapes of Herculaneum?

Answer 12

Herculaneum’s streetscapes were similar to Pompeii’s, but smaller, and featured double-storey buildings; Herculaneum also had an extensive underground sewer system, meaning stepping stones were not required and there is little evidence of the movement of carts

Question 13

what evidence is there for the housing of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 13

many of the public buildings of Pompeii were housed within the forum:
* economic: macellum- marketplace with shops and a central columned pavilion / holitorium- granary / building of Eumachia (Portico of Concordia Augusta)- a large multipurpose building
* religious: temple of Jupiter (the Capitolium)- dedicated to the worship of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva / sanctuary of Apollo- shows Greek and Etruscan influence / Imperial Cult building (sanctuary of the Public Lares)- may have also been dedicated to the defied Augustus / sanctuary of the Genius of Augustus (the temple of Vespasian)
* government: civic buildings- likely used for council; made for chief magistrates as duumviri / basilica - a richly decorated raised platform (suggestum) points to seated judges hearing legal cases / comitium- voting hall

Question 14

what evidence is there for the private buildings of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 14

smaller houses in Pompeii would often have a storefront on the lower level and housing quarters on the second storey; larger houses were generally of a Roman style, meaning that the rooms were focused around the atrium; they featured a ‘fauces’ (narrow entry) or a ‘vestibulum’ (wider entrance), ‘ianua’ (doors), a ‘lararium’ (family shrine), a ‘tablinum’ (reception room), a ‘triclinium’ (dining room, named after the couches provided within it, ‘klinai’), possibly an ‘oecus’ (combined reception/dining room), a ‘culina’ (kitchen), ‘cubicula’ (bedrooms), ‘latrines’ (toilets), and a ‘peristlylium’ (garden inside the perimeters of the house)

Question 15

who were the ancient writers of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 15

Pliny the Elder, Seneca, Strabo, Vitruvius, Tacitus, Livy, Cicero, Dio Cassius, Pliny the Younger

Question 16

what are some examples of private buildings of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 16

• House of the Tragic Poet
• House of Julia Felix
• House of the Faun
• House of the Silver Wedding
• House of the Menander

Question 17

what evidence is there for the official inscriptions of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 17

walls in Pompeii and Herculaneum were covered in inscriptions, that were electoral propaganda messages; in Via Consolare: exhortation to vote for two candidates for aedilles, M. Cerrinius Vatia and A. Trebius Valente

Question 18

what evidence is there for graffiti in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 18

graffiti in Pompeii and Herculaneum features messages, relating to the most disparate subjects and including jokes, comments, caricatures, and remarks on sexual encounters; in the basilica: “Sarra, you are not being very nice, leaving me all alone like this.”, “O walls, you have held up so much tedious graffiti that I am amazed that you have not already collapsed in ruin.”

Question 19

what evidence is there for statues in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 19

statues of wealthy patrons in Pompeii and Herculaneum were situated around the two towns, such as statues of the family who were the patronage of the owner of the macellum in the forum

Question 20

what evidence is there for the mosaics in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 20

mosaics were situated on the walls and floors of many buildings in Pompeii and Herculaneum, both private houses and businesses

Question 21

what is the evidence for the human, animal and plant remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 21

human, animal and plant remains have been preserved in Pompeii and Herculaneum through Giuseppe Fiorelli’s plaster casts; however some of these plaster casts are fake, with metal rods replacing the real remains

Question 22

what was the role of the forum in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 22

the forum in Pompeii was the centre of the town, serving many aspects of life such as religion, the economy, government and law; Herculaneum does not seem to have had a traditional Roman-style forum

Question 23

what was the role of trade in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 23

Pompeii was an economic centre of the surrounding area and played an important role in regional trade, with the port giving access to the sea and the River Sarno for inland locations

Question 24

what was the role of commerce in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 24

the streets of Pompeii and Herculaneum were lined with shops, inns, taverns, and small workshops, built into the walls of private residences throughout the towns; there is no clear separation between commercial and domestic spaces, revealing an intensive use of urban real estate

Question 25

what was the macellum in Pompeii?

Answer 25

the macellum was situated in the forum and was primarily a meat and fish market; the macellum had 3 porticos, one with counters for the sale of meat and fish, one holding statues of the family of the market’s patronage and one with 11 tabernae for the sale of dry foodstuffs

Question 26

what were the most popular industries in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 26

• fishing and garum
• bakeries
• food bars
• wine production
• fulleries
• prostitution

Question 27

what was the fishing and garum industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 27

being near the ocean, Pompeii and Herculaneum had thriving fishing industries, with fishermen, salt-makers, net-makers, cart builders and retailers being in abundance; Pompeii was famous for its garum, a fermented fish sauce which was exported throughout Italy and the Mediterranean, created by taking the guts of the fish, soaking them in salt and draining the rotten liquid; evidence for the popularity of garum arises from Pliny the Elder’s writings

Question 28

what was the bakery industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 28

only the wealthiest people in Pompeii had access to kitchens and therefore ovens, so the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum frequently ate out, thus making bakers some of the wealthiest people; bread was made and sold on the premises and at stalls; mills were turned by donkeys to turn grain into flour, leading to tooth decay from the fine fragments of stone in the bread; regular bread, pizza and dog biscuits were all made in Pompeii’s bakeries; the most famous Pompeii bakery is the Bakery of Modestus

Question 29

what was the food bar industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 29

as the typical citizen of Pompeii or Herculaneum would not have had access to a kitchen in their house and would therefore have had to frequently eat out, a large number of food and drink outlets are present around Pompeii, many containing a service counter, terracotta storage containers (dolia) that were sunk into counters with dried food such as lentils or hot foods and drinks, cooking hearths for simmering casseroles over the charcoal fire and a back room or mezzanine level, likely the living quarters of the shopkeepers; in most cases food was either taken away or eaten standing up

Question 30

what was the wine production industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 30

there are many vineyards around Pompeii, that would have produced wine; villas sometimes had a ‘torculareum’ (grape press) and ‘dolia’ (storage container) to store and ferment wine, often buried in the ground to keep the wine cool; there is no evidence that wine was a major export from Pompeii

Question 31

what was the fullery industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 31

fulleries were wool or cloth washing establishments were newly woven materials could be finished or old materials washed- there are a large number of fulleries in Pompeii, leading to speculation that textiles were a major export trade; clothes were washed in urine as the ammonia removed grease; fulleries contained a large basin for washing clothes, 5 small basins for treading the clothes in urine, 3 large interconnecting basins for rinsing (using perfumed water so as to remove the smell of urine), balconies to dry the clothes, and a ‘torcula’ (clothes press), in which clothes would be stacked in preparation for pressing; the most famous Pompeii fullery is the Fullery of Stephanus

Question 32

what was the prostitution industry in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 32

prostitution was legal in Pompeii, but the working girls were considered amongst the lowest class of citizen; visiting brothels was considered a part of every day sexual life, but they are difficult to identify as they are often in buildings with multiple purposes, such as bars; some prostitutes worked out of bars and the baths, and some on the street; brothel facilities were often identified by small cell-like rooms with masonry beds with straw covering; carvings of penises on the footpaths showed the way to the brothel; the walls of the lupinar (a brothel in Pompeii) are covered in erotic images of sexual acts, likely to stimulate the men, along with graffiti

Question 33

what were popular occupations in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 33

• agriculture
• wine production
• sex workers

Question 34

what was the social structure in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 34

Pompeii and Herculaneum ran on systems of patriarchy, topped by ‘ingenui’ (freeborn), firstly with the senatorial and local elite, then the non-elite freeborn, the ‘liberti’ (freed slaves) and slaves

Question 35

what was the role of freeborn senatorial and local elite in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 35

many Roman senators owned villas and land in Campania, visiting the region occasionally to get away from crowded, filthy Roman metropolis; when Pompeii was established as a Roman colony, an influx of Roman veterans visited the region, with epigraphic evidence suggesting that some older Pompeiian families retained their status, and new families joined the elite, including the freeborn children of freed slaves

Question 36

what was the role of non-elite freeborn in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 36

non-elite freeborn classes farmed and operated businesses such as workshops, inns and hotels; they fell into two groups- ‘plebs media’, who were relatively wealthy but outside the elite- and ‘plebs humilis’, who were the lowest class of freeborn, living in smaller houses that may have been connected to the business they ran

Question 37

what was the role of freed slaves in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 37

Roman society allowed slaves to be freed (manumitted) by their owner, or buy their freedom, sometimes from an allowance given to them by their owners; some ‘liberti’ (freed slaves) became very wealthy, as evidenced by the House of the Vettii; liberti were not given all the rights of citizenship, not being able to vote, stand for office or hold state priesthoods

Question 38

what was the role of slaves in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 38

it has been estimated that 40% of the population of Pompeii and Herculaneum consisted of slaves; slaves were fundamental to the economy, used as workers on farms, in workshops and in households, however understanding their lives presents a challenge because the evidence that survives does not give clear insights into slaves’ experiences

Question 39

what was the role of women in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 39

the archaeological and epigraphic evidence about women’s lives provides a more complex picture than the literary sources written by men, however most of this evidence revolves around high-class women; the position of women was determined by the status of her parents at the time of her birth and by the position of her husband; women were active participants in the economy, possibly having had money through either inheritance or work- they were often required to make purchasing decisions and manage the household budget

Question 40

what were decuriones in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 40

the ordo decurionem was made up of freeborn males of good standing, who had to have respectable professions (thus ruling out actors and brothel owners); it is often said that there were 100 ‘decuriones’ (members of the ordo decrionem), but there is no explicit evidence for this; the ordo was the standing body of Pompeii and Herculaneum and had many important duties, such as managing the standard weights and measures, raising taxes, managing the money that was raised through taxation, setting the budget for new buildings in town, and honouring individuals

Question 41

what were magistrates in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 41

the duumviri were two senior magistrates elected every year; it seems to have been normal for a duumvir to have been an aedile previously; their main role was to supervise the meetings of the ordo decurionem and to sit as judges, probably in the basilica; the two aediles elected each year were typically younger men, between 25-30 years, who held the main role of ensuring the physical features of the city were maintained appropriately, being given a budget every year, but funding repairs and new buildings personally; the four magistrates were the official leaders of the city in the year of their election- however, every five years the duumviri were elected as ‘quinquennales’ (‘Five-Year Men’)

Question 42

what was the comitium in Pompeii?

Answer 42

the comitium was an open-air colonnaded building in the forum in Pompeii, seemingly having been a centre for voting; it is unclear whether the building was where votes were cast in elections or if it was where the votes were counted, but the amount of political graffiti on its walls suggests that it played a part in elections

Question 43

what were the leisure activities in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 43

• the amphitheatre: put on Roman games, the variety of which are shown through announcements, graffiti and inscriptions; the games were put on by aedilles
• the theatre: put on acting performances, likely with musical accompaniment, and could seat 5000 people; wealthy citizens would sponsor theatrical productions so as to gain votes in elections
• the Odeon: same as the theatre, but with a smaller capacity of 2000
• Herculaneum theatre: same as Pompeii theatre, but with capacity of 2500, decorated with many bronze statues and sculptures
• bars: known at the time as ‘caupona’ or ‘taberna’, people could buy meals, drinks and arrange lodgings for the night at bars; people would socialise and gamble in these bars

Question 44

what was the food and dining in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 44

Pompeii and Herculaneum were situated near the Bay of Naples, giving citizens access to an abundance of fish, squid, eels and crustaceans; along with this, the fertile land from the volcanic soil let to fresh produce being available; only the wealthiest citizens had kitchens in their houses, so most people would frequently eat out at the macellum

Question 45

what was the clothing in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 45

togas would not have been worn in everyday wear, with a more Hellenised, practical form of clothing being preferred by most people- men and women with more physical jobs would have worn simple tunics with a cord belt, with more upper class men wearing long tunics and, for special occasions, togas, whilst upper class women would mark themselves out as a ‘matrona’ (mother of the house) by wearing long gowns over light tunics, and in winter, a ‘palla’ (cloak) over the shoulders; these women would also cover their heads with a ‘stola’ (long, pleated tunic) or palla, and would fasten these together with a ‘fibula’ (a formal pin)

Question 46

how healthy were the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 46

despite high child mortality rates in Pompeii and Herculaneum, once a person survived childhood they would generally live a life similar to ours today in terms of longevity and disease; through analysing skeletal remains, archaeologist Estelle Lazer was able to make suppositions about the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum based on the health of someone suffering a similar ailment today; dental evidence suggests that oral hygiene was not practised, with only tooth extraction done- the high levels of calculus and dental problems may indicate systemic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and gastric and respiratory disorders; porotic hyperostosis can be identified in 90% of skulls examined at Pompeii, indicating a nutritional deficiency or high parasite load in the population

Question 47

what were the baths in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 47

there are five main bathhouses in Pompeii: the Forum, Stabian, Suburban, Sarno and Central Baths; Herculaneum had its own Suburban and Forum Baths; the bathhouses were heated by a hypocaust heating system, in which the steam from boiling water from furnaces powered by slaves would heat the water and the rooms of the bathhouse through pillars; some affluent citizens had private baths in their houses, such as in the House of Julia Felix

Question 48

what are the common features of bathhouses?

Answer 48

• palaestra: outdoor space within the walls, often used as a gym space
• swimming pool
• laconicum: sweating room
• frigidarium: cold room
• tepidarium: warm room
• caldarium: hot room
• apodyterium: undressing room
• (men’s and women’s bath rooms were separate)
• latrine: toilet

Question 49

what was the water supply in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 49

Pompeii’s water supply originally came from wells and possibly the Sarno River, however, once it became a Roman colony, its water was brought from the Acquaro River by the Aqua Augusta; aqueducts flowed into the ‘castellum aquae’ (water redirection tower)- the tower redirected water, using gravity, into lead pipes which took it to all the public fountains, paying private residencies and facilities such as bathhouses; Herculaneum likely used the same aqueduct as Pompeii

Question 50

what was the sanitation in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 50

everyday citizens in Pompeii would use public ‘latrines’ (toilets) in the Forum, the baths and the palaestra- these latrines were connected to the sewer system; these latrines consisted of a row of wooden seats with holes, and a sponge on a stick to clean in place of toilet paper; citizens used toilet stops for socialising; affluent citizens had private toilets, often found in the kitchen so that rubbish could also be disposed of down the drain; the toilets could be flushed by splashing a bucket of water down the curved floor beneath the seat

Question 51

what were the household gods in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 51

each day, families would gather around the religious centre of the house- ‘lararium’- and, led by the ‘pater familias’ (head of family), would worship ‘lares’ (household gods); stood before the altar with a covered head, the pater familias would place a small tray of food offerings and libations on the altar, before the family would lift up their hands and pray for safety, and drink wine in praise; the household gods included Vesta (hearth goddess), Janus (god of the gate), the Panates (protectors of the family, food and necessities), Mars and Bellona (gods of war), Ceres (god of agriculture), Cupid (god of love), Jupiter (god of Heaven), Mercury (the messenger), Pluto (god of the underworld), and Bacchus (god of wine and fertitility)

Question 52

what were the temples in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 52

temples in Pompeii included the Temple of Apollo, the Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Triad), the Temple of Vespasian (Imperial cult), the Temple of Venus and the Temple of Fortuna Augusta

Question 53

what were the foreign cults and religions in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 53

• cult of Isis: dedicated to Isis, the Egyptian goddess of motherhood, resurrection, eternal life and sailors; it was practiced in the Temple of Isis, which had wall paintings of still life, priests of Isis, and Egyptian-style landscapes- the cult was popular among lower classes; the cult had 2 ceremonies per day, in which practices such as chanting, animal sacrifice and ancestor worship
• cult of Dionysus (Bacchus): dedicated to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and fertility; it was practiced in the Temple of Bacchus just outside Pompeii, and evidence for the cult exists in the Villa of the Mysteries- the cult was banned in Rome for its drunken wildness, as in the meetings the cult would drink and throw parties

Question 54

what were the tombs in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 54

Romans buried their dead outside a town’s walls- in Pompeii the dead were buried along the roads that radiated out from the city; ‘necropoleis’ (cemeteries) have been uncovered outside Pompeii’s walls around the Herculaneum, Vesuvius, Nocera, Stabiae and Nola gates; many tombs contained the remains of multiple members of a household; although the tombs represent how people, including slaves, liberti and the wealthy, were buried, they can be problematic, as wealthier classes are over-represented

Question 55

how did Greek art influence Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 55

Campania formed part of ‘Magna Graecia’ (Greater Greece), and Roman expansion led to trade with Hellenistic Greece; the art mosaics on the floors and the statues that adorned the buildings in Pompeii reflected Greek myths and aesthetics, such as the Alexander mosaic in the House of the Faun, meant to depict the Battle of Issus, where Alexander the Great defeated Persian King Darius III

Question 56

how did Greek architecture influence Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 56

architectural elements of Campania including columns, porticoes and peristyles are of Greek origin; the Temple of Apollo and the Doric Temple are inspired by Greek styles, and the frescoes, gardens, design and layout of houses also took inspiration from Hellenism

Question 57

how did Egyptian art influence Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 57

Egypt’s influence on the Mediterranean increased greatly after Egypt came under the control of Alexander the Great’s general, Ptolemy; Roman interest in Egypt stemmed from its incorporation into the Roman Empire, seen as a land of exotic creatures, gods and art; private buildings, such as the House of the Faun, contain mosaics and frescoes depicting animals and scenes from the Nile

Question 58

how did Egyptian architecture Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 58

Egyptian images adorn many gardens, and the Temple of Isis combines the worship of an Egyptian goddess with Greek cult elements

Question 59

what has been the impact of new research in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 59

new search in archaeobotany has changed our understanding of what types of food and wine were produced and consumed; changing values and perspectives have led to the reevaluation of earlier theories about the impact of the 62AD earthquake of the economy and society of the cities; other new areas of research include Pompeii’s traffic systems, the impact of the eruption on citizens, new insights on Roman ceramics and analysis of fish remains from the ‘garum shop’

Question 60

what has been the impact of new technology in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 60

new technologies, such as carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bones, have allowed researchers to reconstruct people’s diets from their remains; recent excavations conducted by the Great Pompeii Project have focused on Regio V, a region previously partially uncovered but now more intensely researched; DNA analysis of remains, 3D scans in Herculaneum, Computer Assisted Design (CAD) recreations of buildings and scanning electron microscopes are also examples of technologies that have led to increased knowledge on the sites; Wilhemina Jashemski has done considerable work in discovering that gardens were an integral part of everyday life, by clearing root cavities of ancient plants and pouring and excavating casts of them, thus allowing them to be identified and placed back in their original settings in the houses and villas of Pompeii

Question 61

what are issues of destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 61

once excavated, ancient structures and artworks are exposed to moisture, wind and sunlight- in Pompeii and Herculaneum, exposure combined with long-term neglect had caused wall structures and artworks to fade, crumble and decay; allied bombing in 1943, along with years of tourism, caused much damage to the site; ‘acid rain’ caused by heavy pollution in the region caused discolouration in mosaics; weeds and parasitic plants infest the ruins, particularly ivy; pigeons have also nested in the most secluded corners of the sites, and feral animals roam the sites

Question 62

what are issues of preservation in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 62

in order to preserve the sites, numerous streets, houses and rooms have been closed in order to protect these from the damage by excess tourism- the issue with the use of barricades to stop tourist traffic is that they are often mounted into the wall, causing both structural and aesthetic damage- also, by closing certain spaces, the concentration of tourists in other areas is increased; other preservation efforts include the addition of roof covers, glass and plastic casings on frescoes, graffiti and political slogans against vandalism and damage from the elements; however, the plastic covers rely on the roof above them being in good condition, as if water gets in, moisture can get trapped in the wall

Question 63

what are issues of conservation in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 63

the process of conserving buildings in Pompeii and Herculaneum involves assessing the object’s original context and use, assessing based on the object’s rate of deterioration, causes of deterioration, and the risks inherent in the use of various treatments, before procedures are applied to remedy existing damage as well as prevent future damages; conservation efforts have occurred on the Collegium of the Augustales in Herculaneum, and through the Philodemus Project

Question 64

what are issues of reconstruction in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 64

the Villa of the Mysteries has been subject to large amounts of restoration, along with other areas of the sites, to try to help the public understand what the ancient works may have looked like; however, as the restoration depends upon the restorers’ interpretation of the original, it alters and in turn destroys original pieces of the sites; restoration failed in the use of reinforced concrete to repair building structures, leading to ‘concrete cancer’ as the iron rods in the concrete were exposed to water, and rusted and expanded, splitting the concrete and causing the walls to collapse; another failure of restoration was the replacement of lintels over doors and windows with softwood, leading to rotting, mould and termite infestation

Question 65

what are ethical issues of excavation and conservation, and the study of human remains in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 65

there are ethical issues in the excavation, conservation, and study of human remains in Pompeii and Herculaneum as there is a moral quandary as to whether or not the sites should be excavated, and regarding the display and treatment of human remains; although the sites have global significance an insight into the Greco-Roman cradle of Western civilisation, they are also, in a way, massive grave sites; early archaeologists destroyed much of the site they did not consider ‘valuable’, including human remains; the ‘International Council of Museums (ICOM) Code of Ethics for Museums’ and the ‘Vermillion Accord’ both speak to the question of the morality on the excavation of the sites, and the ‘Pompeii Cast Project’ attempts to display the casts in a more reverent manner; modern social media has also brought into question whether or not it is ethical to joke about the eruption

Question 66

what are the problems and solutions in terms of the impact and value of tourism in Pompeii and Herculaneum?

Answer 66

the sites are visited by thousands of people daily, who constantly graffiti and vandalise the sites, litter, walk and wear down the ancient roads, touch fragile monuments and artefacts, and take parts of the city home as souvenirs; touching of the frescoes and mosaics with greasy fingertips, along with camera flashes and humid breathe, fade and deteriorate the artworks; to account for tourists, there have been spaces made on the sites for situations such as breast-feeding, which stick out against the ancient buildings; issues of tourism have been somewhat alleviated by creating replica statues and artefacts to place in situ, whilst the originals are given to museums for restoration, along with creating ‘virtual tours’ of the sites; as more spaces have opened up to tourists and less visited spaces have become more highly promoted, the deterioration has become more spread out and thus decreased