personalities in their times

Question 1

what was the geography of the Persian Empire?

Answer 1

Iranian Plateau: Egypt, Libya, Cyprus, Syria, Greece, India, Phrygia, Media, Bithynia

Question 2

what was the topography of the Persian Empire?

Answer 2

Zagros mountain range- separates Iran from Iraq and works as a defensive meaure and has an abundance of rivers

Question 3

what were the resources of the Persian Empire?

Answer 3

• mineral wealth: iron, copper, gold, lead, tin, stone
• animals: lions, bears, hares, goats, asses, ostriches, other birds, griffins, sheep, goats, cattle, horses
• crops: barley, wheat, fruit, date palm
• timber: teak from India, cedar from Lebanon

Question 4

what was the political structure in Persia?

Answer 4

king > satraps (king’s relatives) > loyalists (local elite) > commoners (no political power)

Question 5

what was the social structure in Persia?

Answer 5

king > satraps (king’s relatives) > loyalists (local elite) commoners (no power)

Question 6

what was the military structure in Persia?

Answer 6

king > satraps (king’s relatives) > loyalists (local elite) > immortals > levied foot soldiers

Question 7

how did the Persian Empire expand?

Answer 7

• Cyrus the Great: Babylonia > Lydia > Croesus > Lydia > west coast of Asia Minor > Egypt
• Cambyses II: remainder of Egypt > Pelusium > Carthage > Nubia > Memphis > Elephantine
• Darius: Media > Magia > Scythia > Thrace > Getae > Athens/Etetria > (made Susa into the administrative capital and Persepolis into the royal residence)
• (information from Granger)

Question 8

what was the religious structure in Persia?

Answer 8

the Persians followed a monotheistic religion called Mazdaism, that recognised only a single deity known as Ahuramazda; this was the official religion of Persia, however conquered peoples were permitted to practice their own religions

Question 9

how did Persian kingship work?

Answer 9

Kuhrt: “at the centre of the imperial system was the Persian King. The great god Ahuramazda had set him over the varied lands and people of the earth and given Persian supremacy over them. […] king and god were complementary in the universal scheme of things and worked for the same ends.”; in Persia, kingship was seen as something granted by Ahuramazda, and kings were believed to have been made in his image; Naqshi-i Rustam: “A great god is Ahuramazda […] who made Darius king, over king over many, one lord of many.”

Question 10

what was Xerxes’ family background?

Answer 10

Xerxes’ father was Darius, whose wife was Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, and whose parents were Hystaspes, the satrap of Persis, and Irdabawa, an affluent home owner

Question 11

what was Xerxes’ status?

Answer 11

Xerxes grew up in a wealthy household, always being intended to become king; he stayed in the women’s quarters as a child, not meeting his father until he was five years old- during this time his physical features were perfected, through the shaping of his limbs and backbone; he was also placed in command of fifty other boys as a child, to teach him leadership skills, along with being trained in horse riding and chariot driving; “Amongst all these number there was not a man who, for stature and noble bearing, was more worthy than Xerxes to wield so vast a power.” - Herodotus; Xerxes was also educated by Magi to teach him justice, Persian history and devotion to Ahuramazda

Question 12

how did Xerxes success to kingship?

Answer 12

Herodotus says that before Darius left for his foreign campaign to Egypt and Greece in 486 BC, he was obliged to name a successor to his throne; there are many versions of Xerxes’ succession to the throne after Darius’ death, the most popular involving Xerxes’ mother Atossa influencing the decision (unlikely as Xerxes never mentions her in his version of his succession), Spartan exile Demaratus expressing his desire to have Xerxes as king- in which he claimed that, as Xerxes was Atossa’s eldest son and thus the eldest son of Darius’ with royal blood, he was the rightful heir to the throne- Darius changing his mind from his eldest son Artobazanes being king to Xerxes- this argument is strengthened by inscriptions in Babylon that mention the prominence of the king’s son, with a palace being built for him, even though Xerxes would have been too young for this to have alluded to him- and a decision by an uncle in favour of Xerxes (weakest version)

Question 13

what was the administration of the Persian Empire?

Answer 13

• Royal Court: the immediate family of the king
• Satrapal Court: extended family of the king, such as nephews, cousins, and sons in law; duties included ruling the satrapy of the king’s representative, management of the satrapal administration, collection of taxes, overseeing the satrapy’s commerce and trade, and mustering military forces if and when required; members of the Satrapal Court lived in their own palaces and enjoyed royal activities
• day-to-day administration: (written on the Persian fortification tablets); duties included the supply, transfer, and distribution of the Iranian heartlands, provisions issues as daily/monthly individual rations for workers and animals; they were all paid, with accounting done subtly so the system of receipts and expenses can only be described as highly sophisticated

Question 14

what were the Egyptian revolts during Xerxes’ reign?

Answer 14

in 486 BC Darius diverted his attention from the upcoming invasion of Greece to suppress a revolt in Egypt, and died before he got there; Dio states that the revolt was caused by high taxes and deportation of skilled craftsman to Iran; the rebellion was widespread by late 486 BC, and Granger speaks on a letter to satrap Phrenedates telling of the looting of Egyptian grain stores at Nubia; Xerxes crushed the rebellion by 484 BC; Herodotus mentions the uprising in passing, thus downgrading its gravity, however it was serious enough for Xerxes to lead the suppression and inaugurate his kingship with a military campaign, which would show a natural continuity of his father’s military success; Xerxes is accused in Hellenistic inscriptions of stripping Egyptians temples of holy icons, scriptures, temple treasures and disregarding their gods

Question 15

what were the Babylonian revolts during Xerxes’ reign?

Answer 15

Xerxes’ suppression of Babylonian revolts has been controversial amongst modern scholars, initially having derived from ancient sources that Xerxes was a destroyer of temples and sanctuaries and have been despotic, but today taking a more critical approach and increasingly dismissed past assertions in favour of more moderate views of Xerxes’ treatment of subdued rebels; there was a revolt in Babylonia in 484 BC, one of Bel-shimanni (15 days) and one of Shamash-eriba (few months); potential reasons for the revolts, as stated by Dandamaev, include heavy taxation, deportation of Babylonians to Persepolis and the expenses of the upkeep of the satrapal court; Plutarch mentions that the Babylonians were disarmed, but Herodotus contradicts this; Arrian accuses Xerxes of destroying temples, such as Bel-Marduk, but Herodotus offers contrary evidence to his when he mentions visiting the temple 20 years later

Question 16

what was Xerxes’ religious policy?

Answer 16

Xerxes took on the religious policy first created by Darius, who had implemented Mazdaism as the central state religion, centred on the god of light, Ahuramazda, and god of evil, Angra Mainyu; Darius had become associated with Ahuramazda for political and opportunistic reasons or because he felt a spiritual connection to him; Darius considered anything that ‘went against’ his own god-given sovereignty- such as rebellion or ursurpation- a ‘drauga’ (falsehood); however, when Xerxes became king, he accepted gods of other religions, understanding the political value of this, however he too dedicated his life to Ahuramazda; “The cult of Ahuramazda was observed by the king and a selection of other Persian nobles, but at the same time, the kings accepted other gods worshipped in Persis, as well as in the lands of the empire.” - Brosius; the Daiva inscription also speaks to Xerxes’ worship of Ahuramazda, however Xerxes did not push this worship on others; he did, however, state that, if a country follows a religion which turned the country against Xerxes then he would eliminate that religion and establish his power by worshipping Ahuramazda in its place

Question 17

what was the building program of Persepolis?

Answer 17

Persepolis was the site that Darius elected as the centre of the royal administration of the Persian Empire, that Xerxes took on as his own when he became king; Persepolis is believed to have served as an administrative centre, a residence for Xerxes, a palace complex which held events throughout the year for Persian subjects (New Years celebrations, banquets, meeting of signatories), and an instrument of propaganda for the king; much evidence of the Persian Empire still remains, through the existence of reliefs, inscriptions (Daiva inscription, Harem inscription) and pieces of architecture (Xerxes’ palace, Gate of all Nations, tomb of Darius at Naqshi-i-Rustam); the building program of Persepolis brought peace to an empire in turmoil, and focused on construction projects and administering the empire

Question 18

what are examples of images and representations of Xerxes as king?

Answer 18

ancient:
* Persepolis reliefs
* Persepolis inscriptions
* Persepolis architecture
* Greek writers; Herodotus, Aeschylus, Arrian
modern:
* movies; ‘300’, ‘The 300 Spartans’
* scholars: Wiesehofer, Brosius, Kuhrt, Briant

Question 19

what was the foreign policy in the Persian Empire?

Answer 19

the Persian Empire had a policy of respecting the cultures and religions of conquered peoples, and sought to integrate these people into their empire as near equals- however, countries that rebelled against the rules of the Empire were punished accordingly

Question 20

what was the role of the Persian Empire in the invasion of the Greek mainland?

Answer 20

• Xerxes’ invasion of Greece in the Persian Wars was a continuation of the conflict that had begun with Darius; he sought revenge for the defeat at the Battle of Marathon
• launched the invasion in 480 BC, crossed the Hellespont and fought at Thrace and Macedon
• prominent battles associated with Xerxes include the Battle of Thermopylae (victorious) and the Battle of Salamis (defeated)
• Xerxes’ campaign ended following the Battle of Plataea, remnants of his fleet defeated at the Battle of Mycale
• Xerxes’ invasion ultimately ended in failure for Persia
• (events are recounted in Herodotus’ writings)

Question 21

what were Xerxes’ relationships with prominent Persians?

Answer 21

• Atossa: mother of Xerxes; Aeschylus states that she was still alive when Xerxes invaded Greece, and may have married Darius to legitimise his bloodline as she was the daughter of Cyrus; Herodotus states that she helped Xerxes become king, however this is unlikely as Xerxes does not mention her in his inscriptions
• Mardonius: commander of Persian troops; Herodotus states that he married Artozostre, daughter of Darius, which is most likely true; Herodotus states that he was a zealous advocate for Xerxes’ Greek expedition, and he was killed in the Battle of Plataea
• Artabanus: Darius’ brother and Xerxes’ uncle; Herodotus states that he was a trusted advisor of his brother and nephew, and Plutarch states that he wanted Xerxes to gain the throne; he also warned against Xerxes’ expedition to Greece

Question 22

what were Xerxes’ relationships with prominent non-Persians?

Answer 22

• Demaratus: succession of Xerxes; Herodotus states that he advised Xerxes that in Spartan law, the first born to the king once crowned was the rightful heir; Xerxes apparently used this information to legitimise his ascension to the throne; Herodotus states that he accompanied Xerxes on campaign, and advised him not to underestimate the Spartans, along with the meaning of Spartan grooming before battle
• Leonidas: was the leader of the Greek army and died at the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BC), but had previously met Xerxes’ army; Xerxes waited 4 days for the Greek army to disperse, and attacked on the 5th day; the Greeks started off winning against the Persians, but ultimately lost the battle

Question 23

what was the manner of Xerxes’ death?

Answer 23

there are many versions of Xerxes’ death:
* Dio Siculus and Justin state that Artabanus aspired to the throne, and included his sons and Xerxes’ eunuch Mithridates in his assassination plot; Xerxes was murdered in his bedchamber, and Artabanus convinced Artaxerxes that his older brother Darius had done so; Artaxerxes then murdered Darius and became king; this is the most accepted version
* Aristotle says that Darius was executed by the instruction of Xerxes, and that Artabanus, afraid that Xerxes had forgotten this as he was drunk, murdered Xerxes; this version is unlikely
* Granger speculates that Artaxerxes just got tired of waiting for Xerxes to die; this version is plausible
* two bas reliefs discovered from Persepolis show a seated king and a standing prince behind him; Frye has suggested that the king is Xerxes and the prince Darius, and that Artaxerxes removed these reliefs as they remind him of the former king and heir being killed

Question 24

what was the impact of Xerxes’ death?

Answer 24

Xerxes’ death led to palace intrigue, the secession of Bactria, and [Hystaspes]

Question 25

what was Xerxes’ impact and influence on his time?

Answer 25

• “what are both sides of the argument?”
• speak on religion: Aeschylus names Xerxes a religious despot and a destroyer of religious infrastructure such as the Acropolis, and, as stated by Arrian, the temple of Bel-Marduk, however Herodotus refutes this; he inherited Darius’ religious policy, and the policy of tolerance led some to call him a protector of religious diversity
• speak on military: some have argued that he brought peace to an empire in turmoil, whilst others claim that he destroyed militaries; he had a large impact on the Greek world in his invasion, wherein the Greek states were united, but he killed a Spartan king and thousands of Greeks, burned Athens to the ground, and was the catalyst for Athenian growth through its navy; [speak on Egyptian/Babylonian revolts]
• speak on national prosperity: he built royal roads to Persepolis, and built the site during a time of peace in his reign; this included aspects such as the Gate of all Nations (propaganda) and the treasury (wealth)

Question 26

how can Xerxes’ life be and reign be assessed?

Answer 26

• “was he successful?”
• speak on religious policy (controversial topic- good to talk about): typically considered successful as the policy was to be tolerant towards other religions, unless they are cited as inspirations for rebellion; Xerxes continued the policy of Darius, Herodotus said that he did not destroy the temples of other religions; the Daiva inscription and Wiesehofer give general statements regarding his religious policy; Herodotus speaks on the destruction of Athens and how Xerxes allowed the Athenians to worship their own gods
• speak on military campaigns: the Persians had early success but ultimately failed; he inherited Egyptian revolt, and quelled this in 18 months (Granger); during this time Xerxes’ satraps also coordinated the quelling of two Babylonian revolts; the Greek invasion begun in 480 BC, and despite a battleground disadvantage, he used intelligence gathering to victory at Thermopylae, and destroyed Athens (this point also applies strongly to foreign policy); he also failed at Salamis and ultimately the war; many nobility and soldiers perished and lost in the Aegean and Asia Minor; a later attempt at reclaiming these territories was defeated at Eurymedon, shortly before he was assassinated
• speak on building program: Persepolis brought on national prosperity by bringing peace to an empire in turmoil, and focusing on construction projects and administering the empire

Question 27

what was Xerxes’ legacy?

Answer 27

• religion: destroyer of infrastructure eg. Acropolis, Bel-Marduk (argued by Arrian, refuted by Herodotus), brought prosperity but punished rebellion
• military: catalyst for the Athenian Empire through its navy
• national prosperity: Persepolis
• political: manner and impact of his death (argued by Justin/Granger)
• social: lost relatives on campaign who were military leaders and, if Aeschylus is to be believed, he had an impact on the nobility of Persia

Question 28

what are some ancient images and interpretations of Xerxes?

Answer 28

• Persepolis reliefs
• Persepolis inscriptions
• Persepolis architecture
• Greek writers; Herodotus, Aeschylus, Arrian
• Roman writers: Justin

Question 29

what are some modern images and interpretations of Xerxes?

Answer 29

• movies; ‘300’, ‘The 300 Spartans’
• scholars: Wiesehofer, Brosius, Kuhrt, Briant, Granger

Question 30

what is an example of a source/source type about Xerxes?

Answer 30

an example of a source type about Xerxes is the reliefs of Persepolis

Question 31

what are the value and limitations of the source/source type?

Answer 31

• value: show how Xerxes wanted to portray himself (image of Ahuramazda, powerful but peaceful, imagery of lotuses), simplicity of imagery (can be understood across language barriers)
• limitations: lack of accessibility (would have had to have the means to travel to Persepolis to see them), being entirely visual and not having writing (possibility to be misinterpreted), erosion over time (distorts the images)

Question 32

what is an evaluation of the source/source type in the context of other available sources, including problems of evidence?

Answer 32

the reliefs of Xerxes in Persepolis are highly important pieces of art in terms of how they show depictions of Xerxes the way he would have wanted to be seen by the visitors to the site; despite this, the reliefs hold a number of limitations, such as a lack of accessibility, their ability to decay, and their potential for misinterpretation; therefore, reliefs are overall not an ideal ancient source type when it comes to analysing Xerxes, at least not single-handedly