ancient societies Flashcards
Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BC
what is the geographical setting of Sparta?
Sparta was located in the southern part of the Peloponnese peninsula in present-day Greece, situated on the Eurotas River
what were the natural features of Sparta?
- surrounded by mountains, making it difficult to attack
- rugged terrain; made it challenging for outsiders to navigate the region
- fertile valley, allowing for cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock
- hot and dry climate
what were the resources of Sparta?
- Eurotas River led to fertile land
- grew crops such as olives, grapes, barley
- produced high-quality wool
- reared large numbers of sheep
- natural iron, copper, other metals
- access to the sea, which allowed for trade and commerce with other Greek city-states and beyond
- strong labour force
what were the significant sites of Sparta?
- temple of Artemis Orthia
- Spartan agora (marketplace)
- temple of Athena Chalkioikos
- the Menelaion
- temple of Apollo
- monuments to Spartan heroes
what was the Great Rhetra?
the Great Rhetra was the mythical or semi-legendary document that is believed to have been the foundation of the Spartan political system, supposedly written by lawgiver Lycurgus; the Great Rhetra outlined the roles of kings, the responsibilities of Spartan citizens, and the organisation of the military; although it was never found or documented, it is believed to be the foundation of the Spartan political system and was used as a basis for Spartan laws and customs for many centuries
who was Lycurgus?
Lycurgus is believed to be the man who wrote the Great Rhetra, along with being credited with having created the political and social institutions that made Sparta as powerful as it was, such as the dual kingship system and the Spartan military system; Lycurgus promoted austerity and self-discipline among citizens, and created the systems of communal dining and education, along with abolishing the use of precious metals and encouraging the use of iron coins; the issue of Lycurgus is that it is debated by historians as to whether or not he was a real person
what did ancient historians believe regarding Lycurgus’ existence?
Plutarch, being a moralist more so than a traditional historian, appears to have believed Lycurgus was real, however he does acknowledge how any ‘proof’ could be disputed, stating, “there are different versions of his birth, travels abroad, death and above all his work on the laws and constitution, and least of all is there agreement about the times in which the man lived.”- Herodotus seems to have believed that he was not real, stating that Lycurgus travelled to Delphi and was told by Pythia; “I am in doubt whether to proclaim you a god or mortal.”
what do modern historians believe regarding Lycurgus’ existence?
Cartledge consults both Plutarch and Herodotus’ writing in determining Lycurgus’ existence, along with taking a more scientific approach in which he states that the lack of evidence or an archaeological record for Lycurgus makes it unlikely that he was real
what were the roles of the two Spartan kings?
in Sparta, at the top of the political structure was two kings, from the Agiad and Eurypontid families respectively; they hold the roles of interpreting the oracles of Delphi, being war leaders, being the first on and last off battlefields, appointing proxenoi (foreign affairs agents) and two Pythioi (priestesses), making decisions on who heiresses should marry, and overseeing child adoptions, along with holding little judicial power
what were the privileges of the two Spartan kings?
the two kings held the privileges of receiving double rations at messes, having food brought to them if they aren’t available to eat, receiving any minerals they asked for, holding the power to declare war against any country, being guarded on campaign by 100 picked men, having reserved seats at public games, and being given 10 days of mourning after the death of one or both of them
who were the ephors in Spartan political structure?
the ephors arguably held the highest position in the Spartan political structure, being with five people being elected annually by the ecclesia; it was the ephors’ role to supervise the kings on campaign during wars, being the chief officials (magistrates) of the state, being influential in deciding foreign policy and meeting foreign envoys, having wide-ranging police powers over the daily lives of citizens and helots, presiding over meetings of the ecclesia, working closely with the gerousia and attended court cases, and swearing an oath each month to uphold the powers of the kings providing the kings act lawfully
who were the gerousia in Spartan political structure?
the gerousia comprised gerontes- 28 men over 60 and thereby past military service- and the two Spartan kings, who were elected for life by citizens in the ecclesia, and became elite aristocrats; the gerousia’s role was to hold wide judicial power in serious criminal cases involving death, exile or disgrace, putting kings on trial, and proposing laws and framing the wording of legislation to be approved or rejected by the ecclesia
who were the ecclesia in Spartan political structure?
the ecclesia (citizens’ assembly) comprised male citizens over 30; the ecclesia’s role was to meet outdoors once a month, and vote ‘yes/no’ to the gerousia’s proposals of laws by shouting out or physically diving into ‘yes’ and ‘no’ groups, without debating, changing the wording of motions, starting consideration of new issues or proposing new laws or policies, electing five ephors each year and electing men to fill vacancies in the gerousia, and appointing generals and admirals
how did the Lycurgan social structure work?
the Lycurgan reforms brought about a process of social levelling which sought to remove economic class distinctions between Spartan citizens; citizens were known as the homoioi; ‘similars’ or ‘peers’, and if a process of land redistribution occurred then no Spartan was to have no more land than another; the laws stressed an equality of goods and the act of ostentatious flouting of wealth was banned; the archaeological record suggests that Spartan aristocrats were no longer patrons of fine tableware, bronze mirrors and ivory carving; luxury crafts stagnated in quality and declined by the fifth century BC, removing the home market for luxury goods
who were the Spartiates in Spartan social structure?
the Spartiates were males over 30 who had completed their education and training and became citizens of the polis of Sparta; they were named homoioi (‘similars’ or ‘peers’) and lived in tribes- Hylleis, Pamphyloi, and Dymanes- along with being sorted into clans and phratria (brotherhood), which were mainly of significance in religion; the oikos (household) was a family group; citizenship was conditional on acceptance as a member of a military mess, and could be lost due to cowardice or dishonourable actions; citizenship carried social, political, military and religious obligations, with unacceptable conduct possibly leading to atimia (‘loss of honour’); the state wanted men to marry and reproduce and therefore unmarried men were subject to public ridicule; cowards in battle were known as ‘tresas’ (‘tremblers’) and were shunned, and stripped of their citizenship
who were the perioikoi in Spartan social structure?
the perioikoi (‘the men who live in the houses around’) were not Spartan citizens, nor slaves, and it is assumed that they were remnants of the pre-Dorian population that was not enslaved at the time of the Spartan conquest of the land, and they are not only seen in Sparta, but also in Argos, in Elis in the north-western Peloponnese, and in Thessaly; perioikoi have been described as ‘half-citizens’, as they served as soldiers and were considered part of the Lakedaimonian army, fighting as hoplites, having assisted Spartans against Athens in the Peloponnesian War; the perioikoi were subject to taxation and were supervised by the ephors
who were the inferiors in Spartan social structure?
the ‘inferiors’ were neither citizens nor perioikoi or helots; many people were considered inferiors in society, including ‘mothax’- young boys who were not Spartan but who participated in the agoge, and were never granted citizenship after growing up- the ‘partheniai’, who may have been colonists who did not fit into Spartan society and were children of unmarried women and may have been illegitimate unions between Spartan women and helots- ‘tresentes’, who had shown cowardice in battle and were thus shunned- and the ‘neodamodeis’, who had initially been helots, but had been rewarded with freedom through military service; the term of ‘hypomeiones’ or ‘inferiors’ was first used by Xenophon, however he did not define it
who were the helots in Spartan social structure?
the helots were a conquered population of Messenians who were treated as slaves by Spartans, however they were owned by the state rather than by individual citizens; helots were used as a source of labour and as a buffer against potential uprisings, and were forced to pay tribute to their Spartan masters, through portions of their crops and livestock, being subjected to oppression and violence; helots still played an important role in the Spartan military system, being used as a reserve force that could be called up in times of war, however they could not serve in the main ranks of the military, and were not given the same training or equipment as Spartiates
how were babies assessed for their usefulness to society in Sparta?
the Spartan state took interest in children shortly after their birth, in which ephors at the Lesche would inspect babies, allowing those that looked healthy and hardy looking to survive, and exposing those that appeared sick or had an immediately apparent physical deformity to the sun and elements at a chasm below Mt Taygetos and allowing them to die; male children who were allowed to survive would then be presented to Artemis and were socialised at home until age seven by their mothers and nurses, and possibly helot women who assisted in households
what was the agoge?
the ‘agoge’ (‘bringing up’) was the system of education for young boys of Sparta, so they could be socialised an inculcated with the values of their society, focusing not on developing an individual’s interests or talents, but instead being concerned with serving society’s needs, as Sparta needed to prepare men to serve as citizen-soldiers and women to bring forth strong and healthy babies; the agoge was not a school, and was instead all-encompassing, including formal lessons, sport, musical performances, choral singing, hunting and participation in festivals and social occasions, lasting for 13 years in three stages
what occurred in the agoge for boys aged seven to eleven years?
boys aged from seven to eleven in the agoge were known as the ‘little boys’; when boys turned seven, they were placed into the agoge, and ties to the family were weakened and broken and replaced by a life focused on the state, with authority figures taking the place of parents; they were organised into ‘agelai’ (‘units’) supervised by 20-year-olds called ‘proteirai’, with each ‘agele’ being subdivided into ‘bouai’ (‘packs’ of six) and each being led by the most capable as its ‘bouagos’ (‘cattle leader’)
what occurred in the agoge for boys aged twelve to fifteen years?
boys aged from twelve to fifteen years in the agoge were known as the ‘pampais’ (‘adolescents’); adolescents were encouraged to participate in pedastry, homosexual relations between a man and an under-aged boy, and form intense emotional relationships with these men, with the young ‘eronomoi’ (‘loved ones’) trying to gain the attention of their ‘erastes’ (‘lovers’) by excelling in sport or showing displays of courage and endurance, whilst the older man would try to be the role model of the perfect Spartan; adolescents in the agoge were also made to follow many rules, such as to walk in silence in public, with their hands under their cloaks
what occurred in the agoge for boys aged sixteen to twenty years?
boys aged from thirteen to nineteen years in the agoge were known as the ‘eiren’ (prefects/overseers); at this point the boys grew out their hair, which was seen as a sign of manhood and was the reverse of the short hair of a boy, as stated by Lycurgus; when men turned twenty they participated in a ballgame that as part of a ‘rite of passage’, ending the game as ex-eirens and walking away from the match as men, before sacrificing to Herakles and erecting commemorative stelai; the ballgame was also seen as a graduation ceremony
what was the composition of the Spartan army?
Spartan homoioi fought as hoplites- heavily armed infantry, armed with a hoplon shield, 2m long spear, hemet, cuirass and greaves; they fought in the phalanx formation, fighting by grinding forward like a scum, effectively pushing their enemy off the battlefield whilst inflicting casualties; Spartans typically fought with their spears, but if they broke, they could use their sidearm
how did the Spartan military control the helots?
the helots were often called upon to serve as a reserve force in times of war, being mobilised and fighting alongside Spartan citizens, but not given the same training or equipment, meaning that the helots had to fight for the Spartiates, further solidifying their subjugated status
what was the syssitia?
the syssitia were groups of Spartiates who were in dining groups, where the men ate their evening meals communally with their comrades- this was established by Lycurgus, who believed that all men should eat the same plain food; the mess was designed to give daily expression to the concept of Spartan equality and encouraged fellowship and unity