ancient societies

Question 1

what is the geographical setting of Sparta?

Answer 1

Sparta was located in the southern part of the Peloponnese peninsula in present-day Greece, situated on the Eurotas River

Question 2

what were the natural features of Sparta?

Answer 2

• surrounded by mountains, making it difficult to attack
• rugged terrain; made it challenging for outsiders to navigate the region
• fertile valley, allowing for cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock
• hot and dry climate

Question 3

what were the resources of Sparta?

Answer 3

• Eurotas River led to fertile land
• grew crops such as olives, grapes, barley
• produced high-quality wool
• reared large numbers of sheep
• natural iron, copper, other metals
• access to the sea, which allowed for trade and commerce with other Greek city-states and beyond
• strong labour force

Question 4

what were the significant sites of Sparta?

Answer 4

• temple of Artemis Orthia
• Spartan agora (marketplace)
• temple of Athena Chalkioikos
• the Menelaion
• temple of Apollo
• monuments to Spartan heroes

Question 5

what was the Great Rhetra?

Answer 5

the Great Rhetra was the mythical or semi-legendary document that is believed to have been the foundation of the Spartan political system, supposedly written by lawgiver Lycurgus; the Great Rhetra outlined the roles of kings, the responsibilities of Spartan citizens, and the organisation of the military; although it was never found or documented, it is believed to be the foundation of the Spartan political system and was used as a basis for Spartan laws and customs for many centuries

Question 6

who was Lycurgus?

Answer 6

Lycurgus is believed to be the man who wrote the Great Rhetra, along with being credited with having created the political and social institutions that made Sparta as powerful as it was, such as the dual kingship system and the Spartan military system; Lycurgus promoted austerity and self-discipline among citizens, and created the systems of communal dining and education, along with abolishing the use of precious metals and encouraging the use of iron coins; the issue of Lycurgus is that it is debated by historians as to whether or not he was a real person

Question 7

what did ancient historians believe regarding Lycurgus’ existence?

Answer 7

Plutarch, being a moralist more so than a traditional historian, appears to have believed Lycurgus was real, however he does acknowledge how any ‘proof’ could be disputed, stating, “there are different versions of his birth, travels abroad, death and above all his work on the laws and constitution, and least of all is there agreement about the times in which the man lived.”- Herodotus seems to have believed that he was not real, stating that Lycurgus travelled to Delphi and was told by Pythia; “I am in doubt whether to proclaim you a god or mortal.”

Question 8

what do modern historians believe regarding Lycurgus’ existence?

Answer 8

Cartledge consults both Plutarch and Herodotus’ writing in determining Lycurgus’ existence, along with taking a more scientific approach in which he states that the lack of evidence or an archaeological record for Lycurgus makes it unlikely that he was real

Question 9

what were the roles of the two Spartan kings?

Answer 9

in Sparta, at the top of the political structure was two kings, from the Agiad and Eurypontid families respectively; they hold the roles of interpreting the oracles of Delphi, being war leaders, being the first on and last off battlefields, appointing proxenoi (foreign affairs agents) and two Pythioi (priestesses), making decisions on who heiresses should marry, and overseeing child adoptions, along with holding little judicial power

Question 10

what were the privileges of the two Spartan kings?

Answer 10

the two kings held the privileges of receiving double rations at messes, having food brought to them if they aren’t available to eat, receiving any minerals they asked for, holding the power to declare war against any country, being guarded on campaign by 100 picked men, having reserved seats at public games, and being given 10 days of mourning after the death of one or both of them

Question 11

who were the ephors in Spartan political structure?

Answer 11

the ephors arguably held the highest position in the Spartan political structure, being with five people being elected annually by the ecclesia; it was the ephors’ role to supervise the kings on campaign during wars, being the chief officials (magistrates) of the state, being influential in deciding foreign policy and meeting foreign envoys, having wide-ranging police powers over the daily lives of citizens and helots, presiding over meetings of the ecclesia, working closely with the gerousia and attended court cases, and swearing an oath each month to uphold the powers of the kings providing the kings act lawfully

Question 12

who were the gerousia in Spartan political structure?

Answer 12

the gerousia comprised gerontes- 28 men over 60 and thereby past military service- and the two Spartan kings, who were elected for life by citizens in the ecclesia, and became elite aristocrats; the gerousia’s role was to hold wide judicial power in serious criminal cases involving death, exile or disgrace, putting kings on trial, and proposing laws and framing the wording of legislation to be approved or rejected by the ecclesia

Question 13

who were the ecclesia in Spartan political structure?

Answer 13

the ecclesia (citizens’ assembly) comprised male citizens over 30; the ecclesia’s role was to meet outdoors once a month, and vote ‘yes/no’ to the gerousia’s proposals of laws by shouting out or physically diving into ‘yes’ and ‘no’ groups, without debating, changing the wording of motions, starting consideration of new issues or proposing new laws or policies, electing five ephors each year and electing men to fill vacancies in the gerousia, and appointing generals and admirals

Question 14

how did the Lycurgan social structure work?

Answer 14

the Lycurgan reforms brought about a process of social levelling which sought to remove economic class distinctions between Spartan citizens; citizens were known as the homoioi; ‘similars’ or ‘peers’, and if a process of land redistribution occurred then no Spartan was to have no more land than another; the laws stressed an equality of goods and the act of ostentatious flouting of wealth was banned; the archaeological record suggests that Spartan aristocrats were no longer patrons of fine tableware, bronze mirrors and ivory carving; luxury crafts stagnated in quality and declined by the fifth century BC, removing the home market for luxury goods

Question 15

who were the Spartiates in Spartan social structure?

Answer 15

the Spartiates were males over 30 who had completed their education and training and became citizens of the polis of Sparta; they were named homoioi (‘similars’ or ‘peers’) and lived in tribes- Hylleis, Pamphyloi, and Dymanes- along with being sorted into clans and phratria (brotherhood), which were mainly of significance in religion; the oikos (household) was a family group; citizenship was conditional on acceptance as a member of a military mess, and could be lost due to cowardice or dishonourable actions; citizenship carried social, political, military and religious obligations, with unacceptable conduct possibly leading to atimia (‘loss of honour’); the state wanted men to marry and reproduce and therefore unmarried men were subject to public ridicule; cowards in battle were known as ‘tresas’ (‘tremblers’) and were shunned, and stripped of their citizenship

Question 16

who were the perioikoi in Spartan social structure?

Answer 16

the perioikoi (‘the men who live in the houses around’) were not Spartan citizens, nor slaves, and it is assumed that they were remnants of the pre-Dorian population that was not enslaved at the time of the Spartan conquest of the land, and they are not only seen in Sparta, but also in Argos, in Elis in the north-western Peloponnese, and in Thessaly; perioikoi have been described as ‘half-citizens’, as they served as soldiers and were considered part of the Lakedaimonian army, fighting as hoplites, having assisted Spartans against Athens in the Peloponnesian War; the perioikoi were subject to taxation and were supervised by the ephors

Question 17

who were the inferiors in Spartan social structure?

Answer 17

the ‘inferiors’ were neither citizens nor perioikoi or helots; many people were considered inferiors in society, including ‘mothax’- young boys who were not Spartan but who participated in the agoge, and were never granted citizenship after growing up- the ‘partheniai’, who may have been colonists who did not fit into Spartan society and were children of unmarried women and may have been illegitimate unions between Spartan women and helots- ‘tresentes’, who had shown cowardice in battle and were thus shunned- and the ‘neodamodeis’, who had initially been helots, but had been rewarded with freedom through military service; the term of ‘hypomeiones’ or ‘inferiors’ was first used by Xenophon, however he did not define it

Question 18

who were the helots in Spartan social structure?

Answer 18

the helots were a conquered population of Messenians who were treated as slaves by Spartans, however they were owned by the state rather than by individual citizens; helots were used as a source of labour and as a buffer against potential uprisings, and were forced to pay tribute to their Spartan masters, through portions of their crops and livestock, being subjected to oppression and violence; helots still played an important role in the Spartan military system, being used as a reserve force that could be called up in times of war, however they could not serve in the main ranks of the military, and were not given the same training or equipment as Spartiates

Question 19

how were babies assessed for their usefulness to society in Sparta?

Answer 19

the Spartan state took interest in children shortly after their birth, in which ephors at the Lesche would inspect babies, allowing those that looked healthy and hardy looking to survive, and exposing those that appeared sick or had an immediately apparent physical deformity to the sun and elements at a chasm below Mt Taygetos and allowing them to die; male children who were allowed to survive would then be presented to Artemis and were socialised at home until age seven by their mothers and nurses, and possibly helot women who assisted in households

Question 20

what was the agoge?

Answer 20

the ‘agoge’ (‘bringing up’) was the system of education for young boys of Sparta, so they could be socialised an inculcated with the values of their society, focusing not on developing an individual’s interests or talents, but instead being concerned with serving society’s needs, as Sparta needed to prepare men to serve as citizen-soldiers and women to bring forth strong and healthy babies; the agoge was not a school, and was instead all-encompassing, including formal lessons, sport, musical performances, choral singing, hunting and participation in festivals and social occasions, lasting for 13 years in three stages

Question 21

what occurred in the agoge for boys aged seven to eleven years?

Answer 21

boys aged from seven to eleven in the agoge were known as the ‘little boys’; when boys turned seven, they were placed into the agoge, and ties to the family were weakened and broken and replaced by a life focused on the state, with authority figures taking the place of parents; they were organised into ‘agelai’ (‘units’) supervised by 20-year-olds called ‘proteirai’, with each ‘agele’ being subdivided into ‘bouai’ (‘packs’ of six) and each being led by the most capable as its ‘bouagos’ (‘cattle leader’)

Question 22

what occurred in the agoge for boys aged twelve to fifteen years?

Answer 22

boys aged from twelve to fifteen years in the agoge were known as the ‘pampais’ (‘adolescents’); adolescents were encouraged to participate in pedastry, homosexual relations between a man and an under-aged boy, and form intense emotional relationships with these men, with the young ‘eronomoi’ (‘loved ones’) trying to gain the attention of their ‘erastes’ (‘lovers’) by excelling in sport or showing displays of courage and endurance, whilst the older man would try to be the role model of the perfect Spartan; adolescents in the agoge were also made to follow many rules, such as to walk in silence in public, with their hands under their cloaks

Question 23

what occurred in the agoge for boys aged sixteen to twenty years?

Answer 23

boys aged from thirteen to nineteen years in the agoge were known as the ‘eiren’ (prefects/overseers); at this point the boys grew out their hair, which was seen as a sign of manhood and was the reverse of the short hair of a boy, as stated by Lycurgus; when men turned twenty they participated in a ballgame that as part of a ‘rite of passage’, ending the game as ex-eirens and walking away from the match as men, before sacrificing to Herakles and erecting commemorative stelai; the ballgame was also seen as a graduation ceremony

Question 24

what was the composition of the Spartan army?

Answer 24

Spartan homoioi fought as hoplites- heavily armed infantry, armed with a hoplon shield, 2m long spear, hemet, cuirass and greaves; they fought in the phalanx formation, fighting by grinding forward like a scum, effectively pushing their enemy off the battlefield whilst inflicting casualties; Spartans typically fought with their spears, but if they broke, they could use their sidearm

Question 25

how did the Spartan military control the helots?

Answer 25

the helots were often called upon to serve as a reserve force in times of war, being mobilised and fighting alongside Spartan citizens, but not given the same training or equipment, meaning that the helots had to fight for the Spartiates, further solidifying their subjugated status

Question 26

what was the syssitia?

Answer 26

the syssitia were groups of Spartiates who were in dining groups, where the men ate their evening meals communally with their comrades- this was established by Lycurgus, who believed that all men should eat the same plain food; the mess was designed to give daily expression to the concept of Spartan equality and encouraged fellowship and unity

Question 27

what was the krypteia?

Answer 27

the krypteia were known as the secret police of Sparta, who were so feared that Plutarch did not believe that the force could have been instituted by Lycurgus- they terrorised the helots and reminded them of Spartan dominance over them, by ambushing and killing any found on the roads outside curfew or troublemaking

Question 28

what was the role and status of women in Sparta?

Answer 28

Spartan women were not citizens and were considered to be have secondary roles to men; they could not hold political or administrative office or serve in the military; women’s social live were restricted by tradition and custom, and they held a defined public role, singing and dancing in choruses; there was a popular tradition of Spartan ‘wife-lending’, mentioned by Xenophon, Polybius and Plutarch, in which old or infirm men would allow younger Spartan men to impregnate their wives to create ‘ideal’ sons

Question 29

what was the role and status of women in terms of land ownership and inheritance?

Answer 29

there were a number of Spartan women of high amounts of wealth; two-fifths of the Spartan land was in the hands of women; it is known that there was privately held and state-allocated land in Sparta, and in the absence of a male descendant, this land could be left to a woman

Question 30

what was the role and status of women in terms of education?

Answer 30

girls did not take part in the agoge, and instead stayed at home and in the ‘oikos’ (household); it is assumed that women could read and write a little, but there is little direct evidence for this, aside from a reference from Herodotus in which he suggests that Gorgo, wife of Leonidas, could read; physical training was seen as ‘immodest’ in Spartan girls and attracted the attention of other Greeks, as they practiced either naked or scantily clad and in public- physical training in women was to prepare them to bear children

Question 31

how did land ownership work in Sparta, in terms of agriculture, the kleroi and helots?

Answer 31

land was given out under the kleros system in Sparta, in which equal amounts of land were allocated to each citizen; helots were in charge of agriculture on Spartans’ land, performing day-to-day tasks and spending a majority of their time on citizens’ kleroi

Question 32

what was the technology in Sparta, in terms of weapons?

Answer 32

Spartan weapons were created using the ancient technology of smelting and casting metals, wherein iron was extracted from the ore in a crucible over a pit or bowl furnace fired by charcoal; the Spartans came to dominate the original inhabitants of Lakonia and Messenia through their possession of iron weapons, which were stronger than bronze; the weapons used by hoplite soldiers included a 3 metre long thrusting spear, an ‘aspida’ (round shield), and a short iron ‘stabbing sword’ tied to the waist

Question 33

what was the technology in Sparta, in terms of armour?

Answer 33

hoplites in the Spartan army would wear Corinthian-style helmets that protected the head but made it difficult to see and hear, padded corselets worn over a cloth tunic on the upper body, a red Spartan ‘phoininkis’ (cape), and bronze greaves to protect the shins and lower legs, from the knees to the ankles

Question 34

what was the technology in Sparta, in terms of pottery?

Answer 34

• in the 7th century BC, Lakonian ‘kraters’ (wine mixing vessels) were exported to the north-east Aegean
• in the 6th century BC, the Etruscans in Italy remained an important market and kraters have been found as far west as Massalia in eastern Greece; in the latter part of the century the market decreased; with Sicily taking about 2/3rds of the total output of kraters
• in the 5th century BC, Lakonian trade declined significantly, with exports to Etruria ceasing; Lakonian pottery from this point onward is rarely found- it is assumed that the so-called laws of Lycurgus restricting trade were now having there impact, and this, combined with strong commercial competition from Corinth, Megara and Athens and trade patterns changing over time led to Lakonian pottery styles stagnating

Question 35

what were the economic roles of the perioikoi?

Answer 35

the perioikoi controlled commerce and business, as well as being responsible for crafts and manufacturing, including producing the weapons and armour of the Spartan army

Question 36

what were the economic roles of the helots?

Answer 36

helots were servile agricultural workers who supported Spartiates, freeing them from working or managing property

Question 37

how did economic exchange work in Sparta?

Answer 37

Lycurgus banned the possession of gold and silver in Sparta, and established a currency of iron, as he believed the circulation of gold and silver would encourage discrimination between Spartans on the basis of wealth; as iron was an easily accessible and not valuable mineral, all men were placed on an even pedestal

Question 38

who was the goddess Artemis Orthia?

Answer 38

Artemis was the sister of Apollo and considered to be a ‘lion of a woman’, and her worship was common throughout Greece; she may have been worshipped with human sacrifice and was viewed as quite demanding of worship; in Sparta she was worshipped as Artemis Orthia most probably because her cult was joined to that of an ancient local goddess called Orthia

Question 39

who was the god Poseidon?

Answer 39

Poseidon was the god of the sea, and was honoured in various cults in Sparta, yet at Sparta’s port of Gytheion, the travel writer Pausanias does not mention a temple dedicated to Poseidon; he does, however, mention a sanctuary of ‘Horse-breeding Poseidon’, and he was known as a ‘House-god’; he is elsewhere worshipped in Sparta as ‘Family Poseidon’

Question 40

who was the god Apollo?

Answer 40

Apollo was much honoured at Sparta, particularly at Amyklai; he was associated with the light and power of the sun and with ideals of harmony, order and reason in the world; in myth he defeated and killed the dragon Python at Delphi- he was thus worshipped in Delphi; the Pan-Hellenic shrine of Apollo at Delphi was famous for delivering oracles that provided Greek states, as well as individuals, with divine guidance

Question 41

what was the myth of Lycurgus?

Answer 41

in myth, Lycurgus attacked Dionysus, driving him and his nurses before him till the god took refuge in the sea; thereafter Lycurgus was blinded and died soon, having first massacred in his family in a divinely induced madness

Question 42

what was the myth of the Dioscuri?

Answer 42

in Greek mythology, the Dioscuri were twin deities who scoured shipwrecked sailors and received sacrifices for favourable winds; in Sparta, a cult for the Dioscuri was prominent

Question 43

what was the festival of Hyakinthia?

Answer 43

in July Spartans travelled to Amyklai to honour Hyakinthos and Apollo; the festival had two stages- the first a time of ritual grief and sorrow commemorating the tragic death of Hyakinthos, during which time there was a ban on wearing festive wreaths, a procession to Amyklai, a ban on eating bread and cakes, and a ‘funeral meal’ was eaten; the second stage was a communal rejoicing and homage to Apollo, in which there was there was a wearing of festive wreaths, a joyful ‘paean’ (hymn) was sung to Apollo, there was a procession to Amyklai and sacrifice to Apollo, a choral song and dance, and an offering to Apollo of a tunic woven for his statue by Spartan women

Question 44

what was the festival of Gymnopedia?

Answer 44

in July, Spartan ‘paides’ (boys) gathered at the ‘choros’ (dancing place) in the marketplace of Sparta and took part in the Gymnopedia, the ‘Festival of Unarmed Dancing’; this was instituted after the Battle of Hysiai 669 BC in which Sparta lost to Argos and it aimed to develop martial skills and spirit; later it also commemorated Spartans who died in the Battle of Thyrea, fought and won against Argos in 550 BC- the leaders wore ‘Thyreatic wreaths’ on their heads; young ‘unarmed’ boys, not of military age, danced naked for sport, doing very athletic war dances accompanied by flute and lyre

Question 45

what was the festival of Karneia?

Answer 45

according to Spartan legend, as retold by Pausanias, there lived an Akarnanian called Karnos (ram) who was a ‘mantis’ (seer/prophet) and could foretell the future; an early Spartan, ‘the Herakleidai’ (sons of Herakles) killed Karnos and thus Apollo rained down a pestilence on the Dorians; the cult of Karneios was particularly concerned with divination, and featured nine men living for nine days in ‘bowers’ of wood and twigs near the Temple of Apollo, ‘rafts’ being made, a sacrifice of a ram ‘Karnos’, a musical contest ‘agon’ in honour of Apollo, and a ‘catch the runner’ race which was a form of divination that revealed whether the omens for the coming year were favourable or not

Question 46

what was the religious role of kings in Sparta?

Answer 46

the kings in Sparta would interpret the oracles of Delphi, and would make decisions on who heiresses should marry, along with overseeing all child adoptions

Question 47

what were the funerary customs and rituals in Sparta?

Answer 47

Spartans differed from other ancient Greeks in important aspects of their funerary practices; as described by Plutarch in his ‘Life of Lycurgus’, says that Lycurgus instituted funerary regulations such as allowing bodies to be buried din the city itself and to have memorials in the vicinity of the sacred places- so as to make the young men become accustomed to death and not fear it- also, when bodies were buried, nothing was buried with them, however, they covered the body with a scarlet cloak and olive leaves; the name of the dead could not be inscribed on the tomb, unless it was a man who died in war or a woman who died in sacred office

Question 48

what was the art of Sparta, including sculptures, painted vases, bone and ivory carvings?

Answer 48

early Sparta had a lively culture and produced fine painted pottery, beautifully carved ivories, magnificent bronzes and everyday items of great value and beauty; 7th century BC Sparta, with its art, poetry and luxury imports appears as a powerful, wealthy, otherwise normal aristocratic community, only becoming ‘Spartan’ by a subsequent reaction (as stated by historian A.R. Burn)

Question 49

what was the Amyklaion?

Answer 49

Pausanias credits architect Bathykles with the reconstruction of the shrine of Apollo at Amyklai, otherwise known as the Amyklaion- the building was both a shrine to Apollo and the tomb of Hyakinthos, serving as a ‘throne’ for an ancient cult statue of Apollo; devotees would sacrifice objects to Apollo in order to make offerings to Hyakinthos

Question 50

what was the Menelaion?

Answer 50

Pausanias knew the shrine of Menelaos and Helen at Therapne, otherwise known as the Menelaion- it was the earliest building of its kind in Lakonia; an ‘acroterion’ (painted terracotta roof ornament) has been recovered; early in the 5th century BC the first building was demolished and the site was redesigned and built

Question 51

what was the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia?

Answer 51

there was a popular cult in Sparta dedicated to the worship of Artemis Orthia- she was venerated by the Spartans at a sanctuary that stood between the village of Limnai and the river Eurotas; it is believed that, while the goddess had to be worshipped in a wild and uncultivated place, but that the sanctuary still had to be easily accessible

Question 52

who was the writer Alcman?

Answer 52

Alcman was a poet of the 7th century BC, who wrote of a beautiful, carefree Sparta in the local Dorian dialect; he wrote about love, nature, food and wine, using evocative, sensory language; he was primarily known for his ‘Maiden Songs’, and has been quoted as saying, “No more maidens honey tongued, of holy voice, can my limbs bear me. Would, ah would, were a kingfisher, who skims over the flower of the wave with the halycons, keeping a dauntless heart, the sea-blue sacred bird.”

Question 53

who was the writer Tyrtaeus?

Answer 53

Tyrtaeus wrote in the middle of the 7th century BC, during and shortly after the second Messenian War, writing about war and politics; Tyrtaeus is the earliest and most explicit exponent of the practice and values of hoplite warfare, and is quoted as saying, “fear not the number of the enemy, nor be afraid, but let each man hold his shield straight towards the front…”

Question 54

how can Herodotus be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 54

• used eyewitnesses, anecdotes and his own travels to write his histories
• useful because he was alive an travelled to Persian war veterans
• limited in that his accounts may be embellished
• his eyewitness testimonies could be unreliable
• he was only a baby during the actual war; did not see it firsthand

Question 55

how can Thucydides be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 55

• he was ostracised by Athens
• useful because he was in Sparta
• saw both sides of the fight, but would have been biased against Athens
• he tries to differentiate between Sparta’s reputation and real events
• he visited Sparta during the Peloponnesian War

Question 56

how can Xenophon be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 56

• he was an Athenian who lived amongst Spartans
• he admired Sparta and had little criticism against them; known as a ‘Lakonophile’
• useful because he was an eyewitness
• he wrote the ‘Constitution of Lakedaimonians’

Question 57

how can Aristotle be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 57

• lived in Athens for 20 years
• wrote ‘Politics’, which has been compared to the Spartan Constitution, and pointed out defects
• useful because he criticised the work

Question 58

how can Pausanias be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 58

• moral philosopher; looked at virtues
• wanted to write about people’s character, not specifically history
• may have had personal biases

Question 59

how can Plutarch be used as a source of information on Sparta?

Answer 59

• travel guide, wrote guide for travellers visiting historic sites of Greece
• Sparta was a part of Rome while he visited
• gave eyewitness accounts, making it subjective

Question 60

what were the leisure activities in Sparta?

Answer 60

• athletics
• hunting
• equestrian sports
• cockfighting and boarfighting
• banquets

Question 61

how did athletics function in Sparta?

Answer 61

Spartans played field sports completely naked, anointing their bodies with olive oil beforehand; there was a shrine dedicated to the Dioscuri, who were generally patrons of athletics, but here were invoked as the ‘starting gods’ who presumably assisted runners to get away cleanly and quickly at the beginning of a race; the full range of field sports was played: ‘stadion’ (running), discus, javelin, jumping and wrestling, along with Spartans being credited as inventing boxing

Question 62

how did hunting function in Sparta?

Answer 62

Spartans without horses would hunt hares and deer on foot with the aid of dogs and helots with nets; Mt. Taygetos was an area known as Therai which means the ‘Hunting Grounds’, and hunting was done using a javelin and spear; boar hunting was very different as it involved danger for the hunter, leading it to be seen as a ‘rite of passage’ for young men progressing into full manhood

Question 63

how did equestrian sports function in Sparta?

Answer 63

Spartans owned, bred and maintained horses, being famous for its horses, and Pausanias having mentioned a shrine dedicated to ‘horse-breeding Poseidon’- many wealthy Spartans were named after horses, and depictions of horses and jockeys commonly appear on Lakonian painted pottery; equestrian was both a chance for the demonstration of a rider’s skill and endurance, and an outlet for the competitive display of wealth invested in the beautiful horse and its luxury trappings; chariot races were also frequent

Question 64

how did cockfighting and boarfighting function in Sparta?

Answer 64

prize roosters were kept by Greeks, as strong gamebirds that were aggressive were symbolic of the maleness that was much valued in Spartan society, and were compared by Greeks to hoplite soldiers, the plumes of the crest of a soldier’s helmet being like a cock’s head feathers; immature wild boars were also raised in captivity and matched against one another in a similar fashion, and the outcomes of boar fights were taken as an omen to indicate the outcomes of the struggle between two teams of boys

Question 65

how did banquets function in Sparta?

Answer 65

Plutarch speaks on banquets, referring to the type of festive meal known as the ‘symposion’ that was usually associated with religious occasions, that, elsewhere in Greece, involved excessive drinking- however, in Sparta, there was a prohibition of drunkenness

Question 66

what were the marriage customs in Sparta?

Answer 66

when women performed gymnastics naked, men could survey available women if they were thinking of choosing a bride- Spartan males married in their twenties, whilst their brides were in their teens; Spartan marriage began with the abduction of the bride and a hasty first sexual union in which the girl lost her virginity, wherein the girl had her head shaved, was dressed in a ‘himation’ (man’s cloak) and sandals so the man, up to this point only familiar with homosexual relations, could be eased into the new experience of heterosexual intercourse; eugenics was also practised, involving the loaning of wives to other men for the purposes of reproduction