Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism Flashcards
What does change to conserve mean?
The fundamental principle of conservatism. It indicates a belief for something valuable to be preserved, it has to be continuously updated and maintained.
When did conservatism emerge?
- ‘The Englightenment’
2. ‘The Terror’
What are the 4 characteristics of the conservative view of human nature?
- Humans are fragile and frail.
- There is no perfect utopia.
- Conservatives see humans for what they are, not what they could be.
- Human nature is fixed and cannot be moulded to society, so society should adapt.
What is the Conservative key think 1 called?
Thomas Hobbs
When was Thomas Hobbs writing?
1588-1679
What are the 3 main points Hobbs has towards Human Nature?
- Human nature is selfish, competitive and calculating.
- Without restraint through authority, human relationships are fuelled with envy, hatred and war which leads to a nasty life.
- Humans are rational so they will consent to authority.
According to Hobbs, without restraint, how is human nature?
envy, hatred and war filled
Who is the 2nd Conservative key thinker?
Edmund Burke
When was Edmund Burke writing?
1729-79
What is Edmund Burke dubbed as?
True father of conservatism
Which religious saying did Burke draw his teachings on Human Nature from?
The Original Sin.
That customs, beliefs and traditions provide humans with signposts for how to live.
What did Burke gather from studying the Enlightenment regarding Human Nature?
That human nature is not guided by reason so were unable to build a perfect society.
Who is the 3rd Conservative key thinker?
Michael Oakeshott
When was Michael Oakeshott writing?
1901-90
How did Oakeshott view Conservatism?
As a psychology rather than an ideology.
How does Oakeshott believe society would be without authority?
Loud, noisy
How does Oakeshott believe society changes with the introduction of laws?
Begine and benevolent
“Humans prefer what they know rather than the uncertain”, which Conservative said this about Human Nature?
Oakeshott (Michael)
Who is the 4th Conservative key thinker?
Ayn Rand
Who is the 5th Conservative key thinker?
Robert Nozick
When was Conservative Ayn Rand writing?
1905-92
When was Conservative Robert Nozick writing?
1938-02
Which two Conservative key thinkers took this view of Human Nature, “They believe authority is needed as we’re freedom-loving pack animals” and “Desire for individual freedom, innovation and enterprise.”?
Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick
What do the Conservatives promote in regards to society?
Stability, security and order.
Why is Localism important to Conservatives when studying Society?
A collection of communities that restrain selfishness- through working together.
What does Organicism have to do with Conservatives when talking about Society?
Society emerges through time gradually, humans don’t like change.
“View societal changes as being evidence based, mixed with practical solutions which solve the issue at hand rather than ideological steps to build the perfect nirvana.”
What is this statement talking about in regards to Conservatism and Society?
Empiricism
Why is Tradition important to Conservatives when studying Society?
Customs and habits enable security for individuals.
What does Hierarchy have to do with Conservatives when talking about Society?
Inequality is inevitable where the wise establish a hierarchy of power. The less fortunate also have key responsibilities.
Why is Judeo-Christian Mortality important to Conservatives when studying Society?
Religion provides social cohesion which promotes individual responsibility, as well as promoting traditional values such as marriage and family.
“….. provides a steak in society, and security through home ownership and inheritance for family. Nozick and Rand claim ….. promotes individualisation and safety for the system.” What is this talking about, linking Conservatism to Society?
Property
Give the 4 core ideas of each ideology.
- Human nature
- Society
- The state
- The economy
Will you ever have to compare ideologies in your exam?
No, only the different bands within the ideology
Can you give the 4 parts/aims/goals of the state?
- Order and authority
- Organic origins
- Ruling class
- A nation state
Should the state be adapting to the individuals or should the individuals be adapting to the state, in the eyes of conservatives?
State should adapt to individuals.
Why does the state exist according to conservatives, regarding the role of order and authority?
To promote order, security and authority.
Hobbes claims that without authority there is no liberty.
The state must also be strong to uphold laws.
What does Organic Origins mean and why is it important to conservatives when analysing the state?
This is the idea that the State is not an artificial construct. This is important as conservatives believe change should only be taken when necessary, and they don’t actively encourage it.
“…. are comfortable with a ruling class and hierarchy”. Who is this about?
Conservatives studying the State.
Why, to Conservatives studying the State, is a creation of a bond important, and what ‘creates’ the bond?
The bond is called the Nation State. It is important to Conservatives as it reduces the stress on class differences to build a shared identity.
Why does Capitalism fit ‘nicely’ with Conservatism?
- Capitalism thrives on inequality.
2. Capitalism increases private ownership.
Why were Conservatives originally wary of Capitalism?
It may unsettle the organic nature of society.
How did Conservatives decide to adapt Capitalism when ‘adopting it’?
They wanted to moderate a measure of state intervention such as limited free trade- which they believe would build up the States wealth and independence.
After the Keynesian approach was adopted, which branch of Conservatism began to question it in the 1970s (UK), and what changed after that?
The State scaled back on the size of state and reduces its actions in welfare and social policy.
What reforms were brought in the 1800s after fears that a revolution could take place in the UK? Give 2.
- The Great Reform Act 1832
2. The Metropolitan Police in 1828
When was Disraeli writing?
1804-81
What fundamental idea did Disraeli introduce to limit the chances of revolution?
The Conservatives began to introduce the idea of ‘patriotism’ which would bring together all groups (regardless of class) and form cohesion. EG; UK against the World.
Who said this statement, “The wealthy have power to elevate the W/C, which would enable society to develop harmoniously”.?
Disraeli, speaking about Patriotism
How many State in the world are considered to be Liberal?
2/3
What was the Enlightenment?
A defined belief in reason and science rather than religion or superstition.
What is the Mechanist theory?
The idea that citizens can make their own states, which reflect the make-up of mankind. This rebuff the notions such as the Divine Right of Kings.
Which invention helped the movement of free speech?
The Printing Press
1632-1704. Who was writing at this time?
John Locke
Who are the 5 key thinkers of Liberalism?
- Locke
- Smith
- Wollstonecraft
- Friedan
- Stuart-Mill
What would Locke’s ideal state have? Give 3 points.
- Limited power of state
- Clear separation of powers foe the State
- State of law that respects natural rights
Why does Locke believe that laws are important?
Laws enable people to know right from wrong, and protect everyone else’s freedom from people who may abuse it. EG: Murder or abuse
Why does Locke suggest private property is so important?
It builds a sense of identity and ownership.
It also ensures people feel that they have a ‘place’ that is theirs.
What is it called when you work hard and receive a reward?
Meritocracy.
Locke suggest that private property is a reward for this.
What does ‘egotistical individual’ mean?
This is the idea that humans are self-seeking and drawn by their own egos. Rationality enables us to satisfy our own needs, but not at the extent of others pursuit to happiness.
Why is Liberalism viewed as optimistic?
It argues that as Human Nature is adaptable, people can grow and change through challenge. As they’re rational beings, they’re able to do this effectively
How does Hobbes view natural society?
Nasty, brutish and short
Who came up with the idea of Individualisation?
Stuart-Mill
How does Stuart-Mill believe society should be geared to individuals?
Society should be geared toward helping and supporting individuals, notably the right to property.
What are the 3 aims for individualisation?
- Maximise the number of individuals achieving self-determination (control of their own lives).
- Maximise the number of individuals achieving self realisation (discovering our true selves)
- Maximise the number of individuals reaching and attainting self-fulfilment (contributing and happy in society)
Who came up with the ‘Trickle down effect and invisible hand of the market’?
Adam Smith
What does the “invisible hand of the market mean and trickle down effect mean”?
That is obstacles were removed, the market forces would guide traders to success which would result in wealth trickling down to others, and create a prospering nation.
Why do Liberalists support the idea of private property?
This is a natural right- which were suggested by Locke. The idea of private ownership and property is key to capitalism as it believes people have a steak in society in which they will want to invest further.
It links to the idea of Mill’s individualisation, as it promotes individual space which is not accessed by the state.
Can you give a recent example of a One Nation Conservative?
David Cameron
What were the 4 concerns for Conservatism post-war?
- Birth of Labour
- Extension of the franchise
- Emergence of fascism
- Emergence of communism
Who came up with the ‘middle-way’ Conservatism?
Macmillan
When was Macmillan writing?
1894-1196
What is the name of the attempt that Conservatism made to branch togther socialism and liberalism?
Middle Way Conservatism
What embraced tackling social inequality as well as maintaining private property, traditions, and national identity.
Middle Way Conservatism
Middle-way conservatism is an example of change to conserve. True or False?
True
What is Christian Democracy?
A type of Conservatism highly dominant in the rest of Western Europe
What does traditional Conservative values does Christian Democracy entail? Pick 3.
- Hierarchy
- Family
- Private Property
What 2 things does Christian Democracy reject that One Nation Conservatism accepts?
- Nationalism (CD likes Supranationalism)
2. Equality regardless of Gender (self explanatory)
Does Christian Democracy accept an enlarged state, and why is this key?
Yes. After the war the areas were incredibly poor and people were suffering. The enlarged state enables more people to get access to social help.
Why is Christian Democracy called Christian Democracy?
As Christian Democracy doesn’t accept the idea of nationalism (due to Fascist Dictators) and rather supranationalism, the states look toward religion to create social cohesion.
When was Michael Oakeshott writing?
1901-90
What is Oakeshott’s first name?
Michael
“Conservativism is a philosophy of imperfection”. Who said this, and what does it mean?
Embrace the imperfection in society.
and Oakeshott
Did Oakeshott believe in a pragmatic, empirical approach, or an ideological approach?
Pragmatic, empirical.
(Means decisions are made based on the issues at the time and previous ways which dealt with similar issues may be used, rather than ways which fits to the ideology.)
In simple terms, what does “Keep the Ship afloat”, and who said it?
Oakeshott
It mean changes should only be made when a section of society is malfunctioning, rather than changing things to make society ‘better’.
How did Hobbes’ view of Human Nature vary from Oakeshott?
Hobbes:
Humans- Immoral
Humans without society- Nasty, Brutish and Short
Oakeshott:
Humans- Foolish
Humans without society- Noisy, Loud
Did Oakeshott have a optimistic view of Human Nature?
Yes.
He believed Conservatism is positive as it celebrates the things we already have in life, rather than the things that we don’t have.
How did Oakeshott use Organic Origins to explain human nature?
Oakeshott claimed that using Organic Origins in society and gradual change, human nature could find peach and pleasure in society.
Is Conservatism Compatible with Capitalism? Give me one yes and one no answer.
Oui- Capitalism is based on private property which Conservatives support.
Non- Capitalism is considered economic liberalism, and focuses on individuals rather than communities (unlike conservatism)
“Capitalism creates inequality, which Conservatives see as a natural and organic element of life.” Is this showing Conservatism is compatible with Capitalism?
Yes
Can you give me 2 examples of how Conservatism is not compatible with Capitalism?
- Capitalism creates economic and social divisions which can harm ‘One Nation thinking’
- Capitalism is dynamic and volatile which can threaten the order that Conservatives crave.
Can you give me 3 examples of how Conservatism is compatible with Capitalism?
- Capitalism is at the heart of the economy for years which shows tradition.
- Capitalism provides the elite with wealth which they can use to support the WC (paternalism)
- New Right Conservatism is keen to extend private property and free market forces, which is linked to individual freedom.
“Capitalism leans towards global identity which threatens national identity”. Is this showing Conservatism is compatible with Capitalism?
No, its showing how Conservatism isn’t compatible with Capitalism
“Capitalism promotes a meritocracy which threatens hereditary ruling classes”. Is this showing Conservatism is compatible with Capitalism?
No, its showing how Conservatism isn’t compatible with Capitalism.
What does Pragmatism mean?
Dealing with a problem in a sensible way that suits the conditions.
Give me 5 simple explanations of why Conservatism ISNT the party of Pragmatism.
- Traditional Conservatism rejects revolution to protect society based on certain principles.
- Socialists see Conservatism as a ruling class ideology.
- Pragmatism can cause conflict with Conservatives inner emotions.
- Traditional Conservatism is based on philosophical contentious assertions.
- New Right draws on neo-liberal doctrines and has its set ideas which are in ‘stone’.
Give me 2 simple explanations why Conservatism IS the party of Pragmatism.
- Conservatives have argued empirical approaches can cause dramatic change.
- Diveristy in economic approaches shows that pragmatism occurs.
Give me 2 examples of why Oakeshott believes that the Conservatives are the party of Pragmatism.
- Pragmatism delivers the best interests without over-stepping the control threshold.
- Flexible. This enables historical continuity to occur, as well as allowing tradition.
Give me 1 example of how Burke claimed Conservatism was the party of Pragmatism.
Burke claimed abstract philosophy ignored human perfection.
What examples can be used to show how pragmatism occurs when observing economic change?
- Peel- supported the Laissez-Faire
2. Macmillan supported a Keynesian approach.
Which two countries did the New Right conservativism originate from?
US and UK
What two other ideologies does New Right Conservatism absorb?
Neo-liberalism
Neo-Conservatism
What aspects of Neo Liberalism are intertwined with New Right?
Morality.
- Heterosexuality
- Nuclear family
- Patriotism
When did New Right Conservatism originate in the UK, and why?
1970s.
It originated during the Middle Eastern oil crisis, which led to some conservatives rejecting the Post war consensus, as they believed the Government shouldn’t be propping up failing business.
What New Right ideas are taken from Neo-Liberalism?
Economic.
- Individualism (Property)
- Laissez-Faire capitalism
- Small state
Who in the UK and US were the ‘flagships’ of New Right Conservatism?
Thatcher and Reagan
Who ‘created’ the idea of ‘Neo-Liberalism’?
Friedrich Von Hayak and UK institutions like the Adam Smith Institution.
What are the 4 fundamental principles of Neo-Liberalism?
- Laissez-Faire Capitalism
- Individualism (Homosexuality etc)
- Property
What are the 6 fundamental principles of Neo-Conservatism according to Scruton?
- Authority
- National Identity
- Family
- Religion
- Immigration
- Anti-Permissive Social Measures
Who are the two New Right thinkers?
Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick
1905-82. Who was born in this period?
Ayn Rand
1938-02. Who was born in this period?
Robert Nozick
What does Rand believe is at the heart of society?
Talented individuals.
Which New Right thinker believes in ‘atomism’ and what does it mean?
Rand.
This is the idea that everyone is individual and works independently to their own self-goals, which reduces the idea of a society.
What kind of market did Rand believe in?
Free Market
What did Rand believe needed to be extended, and what does it include?
Moral Sphere.
This is the idea of individualism. For example, she was in favour of homosexuality and abortion.
Why does Rand fit into the idea of New Right thinking rather than Anarchist?
Although she believes in minimal state intervention, she sees that it is key in ensuring order and security is prominent.
What was Nozick’s book called?
Anarchy, state and utopia.
Does Nozick like the idea of a large state with a large social welfare policy?
NO.
He is in favour of a small state with no or minimal social welfare measures, as he believes that it creates a dependency culture.
Do Rand and Nozick have similar views on human nature?
Yes. They both are pro individualism, which means that state cannot dictate over individual choices. For example, they both have similar views on the moral sphere (abortion, homosexuality, divorce etc).
What is the name of the State that Nozick prescribes?
Minarchist
What does a Minarchist state include? Give 3 things.
- Allow individuals to live in communes and chose their own moral codes.
- Authority to protect liberty
- Free markets
Can you give 3 examples of how the liberal state promotes tolerance?
- Mill claims that the state should tolerate everyone unless they’re taking away someone else’s natural right
- Meritocratic state so anyone has the opportunity to be successful.
- As the Government is by Consent, people should be able to pick the correct ruler to represent them.
What does Foundational Equality mean?
The liberal belief that all citizens are able to have access to their own natural rights. However, this means they must accept full responsibility of their actions.
What is Equality of Opportunity?
The state must support equal opportunities for everyone.
Give me 2 examples of how Liberals stress the importance of limited Government.
- Constitution to limit the Government and its powers.
2. Separation of Powers
What is Formal Equality?
Is when all individuals have the same legal and political rights. Hence firm respect to the Rule of Law.
Who is Mary Wollstonecraft?
An early classical liberal who considered feminism to be a key stone left unturned.
What did Wollstonecraft argue, that claimed something was affront for no reason?
Treatment for women, she asked why half the population was left to ‘wilt in a marriage’.
What are the 4 main ideas of Early Classical Liberalism?
- Scared of revolution
- Negative Liberty (people can control their lives their own way)
- Minimal State
- Laissez-Faire approach
What is Positive Freedom?
Involvement of intervention measures which enable humans to be free without stresses.
What are the 6 ideas that TH Green said that we should adapt?
- housing aid
- poverty
- education
- living
- unemployment
- poor health
Can you give me one example of how liberal ideas conflict with democratic ones?
Liberals claim individuals shape their lives through the ballot box and that even minority views will be considered. However, this is unattainable due to population size, and Mill claimed that people should be educated to make the ‘correct’ decision (which would be liberal).
Stuart-Mill- “Individuals should think about what they would like to become, rather than what they have become.” What is this the definition for?
Developmental Individualisation.
Who is Bentham? and when was he writing to and from?
Founder of Utilitarianism- 1748-32
When is Bentham stuffed?
London
Is Bentham a key Liberal key thinker?
No. He is an add-on
What is a key phrase that Bentham coined?
“The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number”. He was pro-democracy and believed we should vote for who we wanted.
Can you give 1 danger that Democracy held, and why this was dangerous according to Mill?
The uneducated voting in a representative. This is why he wanted formal education to be compulsory for all.
This was because people could vote for people that he believed were dangerous and had bad intentions. For example, it could be a rise of Socialism.
Who invented the principle of Harm Theory?
Mill
Who believes the enabling state was vital?
TH Green
Why does Rawls dance on the bridge between Liberalism and Socialism slightly?
He believed that social measures were needed to help people reach their potential, but didn’t believe that the gap between rich and poor needed to be minimised.
What is the enabling the state and why is it important?
This is the type of state which enables people to get support through welfare measures, which enables individuals to fulfil their lives and potential as they’re not restrained by their issues.
When was the State Pension introduced?
1906
What ideological phrase did Rawls invent?
“The Veil of Ignorance”
When was Rawls writing?
1921-02
How did Rawls believe the distribution of wealth would be reached?
Taxation
What does the Veil of Ignorance mean?
This is the idea that if people didn’t know how they were going to do in life, they would chose a society in which the poor faired well.
Do Liberals support a written Constitution?
Yes
How do Early Classical Liberals differ to Modern Liberals in terms of taxation?
ECL: Taxation is stealing
ML: Taxation is an enabler
ECL: Minimal state
ML: Enlarged state
Which principle do these opinions answer?
How do Early Classical Liberals differ to Modern Liberals in terms of State Size?
How do Early Classical Liberals differ to Modern Liberals in terms of Freedom types?
ECL: Negative
ML: Positive
How do Early Classical Liberals differ to Modern Liberals in terms of the economy?
ECL: Laissez-Faire
ML: Keynesian
ECL: Educated can vote
ML: Everyone can vote
Which principle do these opinions answer?
How do Early Classical Liberals differ to Modern Liberals in terms of electorate?
What is the aim of social liberalism?
Update Classical Liberalism’s stress on tolerance.
How did Friedan believe that women were being conditioned?
Cultural Channels (culturally conditioned)
How did Friedan believe that the state could improve the lives of women?
Through the enabling state.
Such as through law changes.
How do Friedan’s beliefs link to liberalism?
Individualism
What word beginning with R is important to Liberals?
Rational
Please write down each difference between each key figure in their ideas of human nature, the state, the economy and society.
- Burke
- Mill
- Wollstonecraft
- Friedan
- Rawls
What is the format of all questions in the core ideologies section?
To what extent is ……
Why do traditional Conservatives fear the capitalist system?
They believe that the capitalist regime could damage the organic society due to its fast natured approached.
What kind of economy do traditional Conservatives favour?
A middle-way, also known as mixed economy.
Neo Liberals believe “the state should be rolled back (protect individual freedom”.
How do Neo-Conservatives views differ?
Want the state to be rolled forward (EG= laws to restrict trade unions)
Which two political ideologies are combined when studying the New Right?
Neo Liberals and Neo Conservatives.
Neo Liberals believe “Individual Liberty should be advanced”.
How do Neo-Conservatives views differ?
Individual liberty should be restricted, and police power should be extended.
Neo Liberals believe “Immigration should be relaxed (Rand claims immigration occurs with free movement).”
How do Neo-Conservatives views differ?
Should be reduced as it threatens the idea of national identity.
Neo Conservatives believe “Government spending should be increased”.
How do Neo-Liberals views differ?
Government spending should be decreased
What does Neo mean?
New