Political Ideologies Flashcards
Difference between ideology and ideologies?
Ideology is a particular type of political thought, whereas ideologies is a collection of different thoughts (and often thus considering multiple, rather than subscribing to one)
Ignoring the contention that surrounds the definition of ideology, what is a simple definition of ideology?
A political belief system or an action-orientated set of political ideas
More or less a coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for organised political action
What is ideological hegemony?
One set of political and social ideas prevailing, and thus becoming the main set of ideas in the current times
Difference between descriptive and normative thought?
A descriptive statement gives an account of how the world is without saying whether that’s good or bad. A normative statement expresses an evaluation, saying that something is good or bad, better or worse, relative to some standard or alternative.
How do most people talk about the political spectrum?
Using the poles of left and right, enabling people to talk about a linear political spectrum
In terms of political change, how have left and right traditionally been perceived?
Left-wing thinking welcomes change, usually based on a belief in progress, while right-wing thinking resists change and seeks to defend the status quo.
Thought the lens of political change, how can conservatives view of reducing public debt be viewed?
Right-wing thinking is shaped by an aversion to uncertainty and instability. Therefore, conservatives traditionally view reducing public debt as reducing uncertainty and instability.
Other than political change, what economic attitudes characterise the left and the right?
Left wing thinkers support intervention and collectivism, while right-wing thinkers favour the market and individualism
In terms of equality, how can left and right wing thinkers be characterised?
Left favour equality, whilst right think of equality as impossible or undesirable
What are some common issues with trying to place ideologies on the traditional political spectrum?
Many ideologies have different characteristics that would be placed at different parts of the political spectrum.
Why are there some arguments that the political spectrum should be horseshoe-shaped rather than linear?
Some extreme gins of the linear spectrum may have more in common with one another than they do with their ‘centrist’ neighbours
What are some examples of classical ideologies?
Liberalism
Conservatisim
Socialism
Nationalism
Anarchism
Fascism
What are some examples of ‘new’ ideologies?
Feminism
Green ideology
Multiculturalism
Islamism
What is a major place that the new ideologies focus on compared to from classical ideologies?
Classical ideologies focus heavily on economics, whereas new ideologies shift and place greater emphasis on culture.
Classical ideologies had their morals grounded in a particular economic model. New ideologies focus more on values, beliefs, and ways of thinking.
What is the central theme of liberalism?
Commitment to the individual and the desire to construct a society in which people can satisfy their interests and achieve fulfilment.
Difference between classical liberalism and modern liberalism?
Classical is characterised by a belief in a minima state, whose function is limited to the maintenance of domestic order and personal security.
In contract, modern liberalism accepts that the state should help people to help themselves.
What is a divine right?
Doctrine that earthly rulers are chosen by God and thus wield unchallengeable authority
What is absolutism?
A form of government in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual or small group, in particular, an absolute monarchy
Difference between classical and modern liberalism in the context of state welfare?
Classical wanted to minimise state intervention and therefore would be against state welfare.
However, modern liberalism is associated with welfare provision and economic management
What political ideology most characterises the Western world?
Liberalism
What are the core values of liberalism?
Individualism
Freedom
Reason
Justice
Toleration
What is the difference between negative freedom and positive freedom?
Negative - the absence of external restrictions or constraints on the individual, allowing freedom of choice.
Positive - Self-mastery or realisation; the achievement of autonomy or the development of human capacities.
In the context of freedom, how do liberals and anarchists differ?
Anarchists believe law and government are unnecessary, whereas liberals believe governance is imperative.
Both advocate for freedom, but liberals fear that entirely free individuals may wish to exploit others.
Therefore, liberals believe that a state should protect and stop others from exploiting others, although people should have freedom as long as they comply with laws
How do liberals regard the state in fairness?
Neutral arbiter among the competing individuals and groups within society.
In terms of responsibilities, how do liberals view governments?
Should be a limited government that abides by constitutional constraints, rather than an arbiter government
Define arbitrary government
a. : not restrained or limited in the exercise of power : ruling by absolute authority. an arbitrary government. b. : marked by or resulting from the unrestrained and often tyrannical exercise of power.
In the context of governance, what is a constitution?
A set of rules that seeks to allocate duties, powers and functions among the various institutions of government.
What is the concept of constitutionalism?
Practice of limited government brought about by the existence of a constitution.
What is a civil liberty?
The private sphere of existence; freedom from government
What is a liberal democracy?
Blending a liberal commitment to limited government with democratic belief that said government should only be their by popular decision
Key features of liberal democracy:
Right to rule is gained through regular and competitive elections
Constraints on government are imposed by a constitution
Civil society that includes private enterprise, independent trade unions, and a free press
What is the definition of feudalism?
the dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord’s land and give him homage, labour, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange for military protection.
What is negative freedom?
“The individual is free in so far as he or she is left alone, not interfered with or coerced by others. As stated earlier, freedom in this sense is the absence of external constraints on the individual.”
What is the idea that the state is a necessary evil?
“It is necessary in that, at the very least, it lays down the conditions for orderly exist-ence; and it is evil in that it imposes a collective will on society, thereby limiting the freedom and responsibilities of the individual.”
Natural rights in the American Declaration of Independence?
Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
Why are human rights inalienable?
Can’t be taken away, as they are fundamental rights afforded to all humans
What economic ideology do Adam Smith’s works relate to most and why?
Liberalism - his works attacked state intervention, and instead argued for the principle that the economy works best when it is left alone by government.
What is the concept of utilitarianism?
Moral philosophy that equates ‘good’ with pleasure or happiness, and ‘evil’ with pain or unhappiness.
Individuals are therefore assumed to act so as to maximise pleasure and minimise pain, these being calculated in terms of utility.
What is Laissez-Faire economics and why is it not used?
Advocates that the state should have no econonmic role, instead leaving the economy alone and allowing business people to act however they please
Issue is that this economic thought is opposed to all forms of legislation, including restrictions on employment of children, limits to number of hours worked, and any regulation on working conditions.
What is altruism?
Concern for the interests and welfare of others, based either on enlightened self-interest or a belief in a common humanity.
How did development of notion of positive freedom lead to greater state intervention in social matters?
“By protecting individuals from the social evils that cripple their lives, the state can expand freedom, and not merely diminish it. In place of the minimal state of old, modern liberals therefore endorsed an enabling state, exercising an increasingly wide range of social and economic responsibilities.”
Negative freedom, by contrast, would advocate against this sort of state intervention, given that it is placing restrictions on people
Are welfare rights negative or positive rights?
Positive, because they can only be satisfied by the positive actions of government.
Examples include the right to work, the right to education, and the right to decent housing
Define egalitarian
believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.
Difference between ‘justice’ in terms of an egalitarian society being preferable to an inegalitarian one, between liberalism and socialism?
Liberalism is rooted in self-interest, and most would prefer state welfare based on them wanting to avoid poverty more than wanting to be rich
Socialism is based on the idea that egalitarian would be social solidarity, and that is why is it preferable.
Why was Laissez-Faire policies abandoned?
“came about because of the increasing complexity of industrial capitalist economies and their apparent inability to guarantee general prosperity if left to their own devices.”
Define Keynesian
“Keynesianism refers, narrowly, to the economic theories of J. M. Keynes (1883–1946) and, more broadly, to a range of economic policies that have been influenced by these theories.”
How did Keynes argue that government could ‘manage’ their economies?
Influencing the level of aggregate demand; government spending is, in this sense, an injection of demand into the economy
On the rathe hand, taxation is a withdrawal from the economy: it reduces aggregate demand and dampens down economic activity.
How does Keynes recommend that governments reflate their economies in economic downturns?
Increasing public spending or cutting taxes.
How did the economic environment in the 70s - 80s compare to the 50s - 60s?
70s - 80s were a lot more hardship, 50s - 60s were pretty strong economic growht
Why is neoliberalism typically viewed as the dominant ideology of the ‘new’ world economy?
Success of the US economy vs other places such as Japan and Germany
What is neoliberal globalisation?
Intensified international competition encourages governments to deregulate economics and reduce tax levels in hope of attracting investment and preventing MNCs from relocating elsewhere.
Strong downward pressure is also exerted on public spending, and especially on welfare budgets, by the fact that, in the context of heightened global competition, the control of inflation has displaced the maintenance of full employment as the principal goal of economic policy.
How has China limited exposure to neoliberal globalisation?
Controlling exchange rate so limiting exposure to international competition
Why does neoliberal globalisation lead to peace and international law and order?
Countries are more intrincally linked, so international tensions can be disruptive to trade
In everyday language, what does conservative mean?
Moderate or cautious behaviour
What is the fundamental idea of conservatism?
Desire to conserve, reflected in a resistance to, or at least a suspicion of, change
Sticking with the traditional social order
What is an autocratic monarchy?
An autocracy is a form of government in which one ruler has absolute control and decision-making power.
Autocratic monarchy is an autocracy based on a monarchy.
Why isn’t there a conservative party in the US?
Both republicans and democrats resent being labelled conservative
Why do commentators argue that ‘Thatcherism’ and ‘Reaganism’, and the New Right project in general, do not belong to conservative ideology?
They are deeply influenced by classical liberal economics, and hence draw heavily on free-market economics, although they did not abandon traditional conservative social principles such as a belief in order, authority, and discipline.
What is the New Right?
An ideological trend within conservatism that embraces a blend of neoliberalism and neoconservatism
How do conservatives view change?
Resistant to it; often, conservative parties have a clearer understanding of what they oppose, than of what they favour.
What is conservatives position on equality?
Social inequality is an editable feature of an organic society; there must be leaders, and there must be followers.
How do liberals regard society?
Not as an entity in its own right, but as a collection of individuals.
How do conservatives regard society?
Should be viewed as an organism, a living entity. Society thus has an existence outside the individual, and in a sense is prior to the individual; it is held together by the bonds of tradition, authority, and a common morality.
Why do conservatives have strong views regarding ownership property?
They view it as something to fall back on during hard times
What is social market capitalism?
Marry the disciplines of market competition with the need for social cohesion and solidarity.
An economy that is structured by market principles and is relatively free from state interference, but which operates alongside comprehensive welfare provision and effective social services
How does neoliberalism view the state?
Definitely is a shift way from Keynesian economics and is closer aligned to free-market thinking.
It amounts to a restatement of the case for a minimal state.
What are some key neoliberal policies?
Privatisation, spending cuts (especially in social welfare), tax cuts (particularly corporate and direct taxes), and deregulation.
Difference between Keynesian and neoliberalism in terms of economics?
Keynesian more state intervention, neoliberal less state intervention
Keynesian is also demand-side focused, whereas as neoliberalism focuses on supply-side economics.
What is fiscal conservatism?
A political-economic stance that prioritises the lowering of taxes, cuts in public spending, and reduced government debt
How do neoliberals view social welfare?
Object to welfare on both economic and moral grounds.
Economically, increased social expenditure pushes up taxes, and public services are inherently inefficient
Morally, the welfare state is criticised for creating a culture of dependent: it saps initiative and enterprise, and robs people of dignity and self-respect.
How do neoliberals differ to neoconservatives?
Neoconservatives stress the primacy of politics and seek to strengthen leadership and authority in society
Neoconservatism advocates for a minimal but strongg state.
They also have typically sought to restore public order, strengthen family or religious values, and bolster national identity.
Was closely associated with the Bush administration in the years following 9/11
How are conservatism and euroscepticism linked?
At times, conservatism has been defined by euroscepticism, which is hostility to European integration based on the belief that it is a threat to national sovereignty and/or national identity
Test
Test
Why were Liberal Democrat’s initially criticised in the coalition?
They cidnt do what they set out in their manifesto; there was nothing ‘new’ about the politics
What was the issue with Lib Dem’s and tuition fees?
They initially pledged not to increase them, although they ended up letting the bill get passed whilst they were in coalition government
What was nick clegg’s apology video for?
Raising tuition fees despite Lib Dem’s saying they wouldnt
In populism, what are the ‘privileged’ party?
They don’t have to be privileged, they can just be someone that can bl blamed for an issue; trump blaming Mexicans is an example, in order to appeal to people who feel disadvantaged in the US
What is the SNP populist narrative?
Scottish people bein ruled from afar by English elites who do not have the Scottish people’s best interest at heart
What was Nigel Farage’s populist line?
Once great National that has ceded control of its laws and its borders to a foreign elite that does not care about its citizens and does not respect English/British culture
How does immigration play into the fears of right-wing populists?
Terrorise is on the rise (or, at least, public perception is that terrorism is on the rise), and right wing populists can’t understand why immigrants keep coming into a country despite this rise in terrorism.
