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NSB! > Plasticity and regeneration > Flashcards

Plasticity and regeneration Flashcards

1
Q

What is embryonic neurogenesis?

A
  • neurogenesis that occurs during embryonic development
  • neurogenesis is the formation of new neuronal cells
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2
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A
  • process by which new neurons are formed in the brain
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3
Q

Neurogenesis occurs during pregnancy, when does it start & end?

  1. week 3 to week 12
  2. week 3 to week 24
  3. week 3 to week 28
  4. week 3 to week 38
A

week 3 to week 28

  • occurs during neurulation at week 3 of gestation up to 28 weeks
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4
Q

What are the main steps of embryonic neurogenesis, also called neurulation?

A

1 - trilaminer** germ disk** forms (ecto, meso & endoderm)

2 - mesoderm cells differentiate into notochord (cartilage precursor)

3 - notochord begins neurulation, causing cells in ectoderm to differentiate and form the neural plate

4 - neural plate dips forming a groove with neural folds, that come together forming a neural tube and leave the ectoderm

5 - cells on dorsal side of neural tube differentiate into neural crests

6 - neural crests will form the PNS and other cells

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5
Q

Neural crest cells formed from the dorsal part of the neural tubes are a temporary group of cells that break away from the neural tube. These cels are then able to form a diverse number of cells. What are some of the most important cells and tissues the neural crest cells go on to form?

A
  • melanocytes

- craniofacial cartilage and bone

- smooth muscle

- peripheral & enteric (GIT) neurons & glia (schwann cells)

- adrenal medullary cells

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6
Q

What are neural stem cells?

  1. cells located within ventricular zone for neurogenesis
  2. cells involved in PNS only
  3. cells involved in CNS only
  4. cells able to self renew and differentiate into any cell type
A
  1. cells able to self renew & differentiate into any cell type
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7
Q

What are progenitor stem cells?

  1. cells that are programmed to differentiate into one cell type
  2. cells able to differentiate as many times as required
  3. cells able to differentiate a limited number of times and limited cell types
  4. cells able to differentiate a limited number of times but unlimited cell types
A

progenitor stem cells:

  • cells able to differentiate a limited number** of times and limited cell **types
  • specialised form of stem cell
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8
Q

When we compare cells from the blastocyst to neural crest cells, which one is a stem cell and which one is a progenitor cell?

A
  • blastocyst = stem cell
  • neural crest = progenitor cell (limited cells type & differentiation)
  • progenitor cells come from stem cells
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9
Q

Neural stem cells form what?

A
  • ALL cell types in nervous system
  • (neurons & glia cells)
  • able to self renew
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10
Q

What is the difference between symmetric & asymmetric cell division in neuronal stem cells?

A
  • symmetric (same) = produces 2 differentiated** or **2 stem cells
  • asymmetric (not the same = produces a stem + a progenitor cell
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11
Q

Where are neuronal stem cells initially found after 3 weeks of embryonic development?

  1. neuronal tube
  2. ectoderm
  3. mesoderm
  4. gonadal ridge
A
  • neuronal tube
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12
Q

When stem cells differentiate do they become differentiated cells straight away or something else?

A
  • they become a progenitor cell first
  • this is an intermediate stage before becoming a specialised cell type following a stimulus to differentiate
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13
Q

Neural crest cells are a specific type of cell that can differentiate into a variety of different cells. What is a key characteristic of this cell type though?

A

Neural crest cells:

  • migratory cells (migrate down ectoderm)
  • able to move to different parts of the body, like melanocytes in the skin
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14
Q

What are neuroblast cells?

  1. naive neural crest cell
  2. naive neuronal cells
  3. naive schwann cells
  4. naive glial cells
A

neuroblast cells:

  • naive neuronal cells
  • neuroepithelial cells that began in the neural tube
  • intermediate step from a neuronal stem cell before it differentiates into a specialised cell in the CNS
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15
Q

Neuroblast cells (naive neuronal cells) are an intermediate step from a neuronal stem cell before it differentiates into a specialised cell in the CNS. What are the 2 main groups these cells become from neuronal stem cells in the CNS?

  1. neuroblasts and schwann cells
  2. neuroblasts and glioblasts
  3. glioblasts and schwann cella
  4. glioblasts and choroid cells
A

Neuronal stem cells differentiate to become specialised cells in CNS:

  • neuroblasts + glioblasts
  • neuroblasts (uni, bi, multi polar neurons etc..)
  • glioblasts (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial)
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16
Q

The notch receptor of the delta notch signalling pathway regulates differentiation of progenitor cells towards neurons. Cells contains notch receptors on their membranes, one of which is called delta, which when bound to a ligand will promote intracellular pathways that trigger its differentiation into a specific type of cell. What does this signalling pathway promote the formation of?

  1. neurons
  2. oligodendrocytes
  3. astrocytes
  4. microglia
A
  1. astrocytes
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17
Q

The notch receptor of the delta notch signalling pathway regulates differentiation of progenitor cells towards neurons. Cells contains notch receptors on their membranes, one of which is called delta, which when bound to a ligand will promote intracellular pathways that trigger its differentiation into a specific type of cell. This signalling pathway promotes the formation of astrocytes, whilst inhibiting what 2 other cells?

  1. neurons and oligodendrocytes
  2. neurons and microglia
  3. microglia and oligodendrocytes
  4. microglia and choroid cells
A

delta notch receptor bound to ligand Inhibits formation of:

  • neurons
  • oligodendrocytes
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18
Q

We know that in the delta-notch signalling pathway, that notch promotes the formation of astrocytes but is able to inhibit neurons and oligodendrocytes. In order for neurons to preferentially develop, especially in the cortex, what has to happen?

  1. notch agonist called numb allows neurons to develop
  2. notch antagonist called numb allows neurons to develop
  3. notch antagonist called numb allows oligodendrocytes to develop
  4. notch agonist called numb allows microglia cells to develop
A
  1. notch antagonist called numb allows neurons to develop

numb is a protein that

  • inhibits notch,
  • inhibiting astrocyte formation &
  • promoting neurons
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19
Q

What are filopodia?

  1. cillia in CNS aimed to promote CSF fluid movement
  2. thin extensions of dendrites
  3. thin membrane protrusions acting as cell probe to sample surrounding tissues
  4. thin membrane protrusions that fix the cell to a specific spot
A

filopodia:

  • thin membrane protrusions acting as cell probe to sample surrounding tissues
  • they are the tips** of **axons
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20
Q

What are lamellipodia?

  1. cillia in CNS aimed to promote CSF fluid movement
  2. thin extensions of dendrites
  3. thin membrane protrusions acting as cell probe to sample surrounding tissues
  4. actin cytoskeleton formed from microtubules of developing neurons assisting with motility
A

lamellipodia:

  • actin cytoskeleton formed from microtubules of developing neurons assisting with motility
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21
Q

What are growth cones?

  1. cillia in CNS aimed to promote CSF fluid movement
  2. actin supported extension of developing neuronal cells facilitating growth
  3. thin membrane protrusions acting as cell probe to sample surrounding tissues
  4. actin cytoskeleton formed form microtubules of developing neurons assisting with motility
A

Growth cones:

  • actin supported extension of developing neuronal cells facilitating growth
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22
Q

How many layers of neurons does the cerebral cortex have?

  1. 2
  2. 4
  3. 6
  4. 8
A

cerebral cortex has 6 layers of neurons

  • aprox 2-4 mm in thickness
23
Q

What does the term cortical refer to in relation to neurogenesis?

A

Cortical:

    • precursor for cerebral cortex
    • the most outer layer of the brain that is grey matter as its cell bodies
24
Q

In cortical development, which is the precursor for the cerebral cortex (the outer most layer of the brain that is grey matter, as per image below) where do the newly formed neurons begin?

  1. ventricular zone within ventricles of the brain
  2. thalamus
  3. cerebellum
  4. pons
A

newly formed neurons begin:

  • ventricular zone within ventricles of the brain
25
Q

In cortical development, which is the precursor for the cerebral cortex (the outer most layer of the brain that is grey matter, as per image below), newly formed neurons begin in the ventricular zone (ventricles of the brain). Which other type of glial cells facilitate this migration from the ventricular zone to the cortical plate?

  1. microglia
  2. oligodendrocytes
  3. astrocytes
  4. radial glial cells
A

radial glial cells

  • facilitate migration from ventricular come to cortical plate
26
Q

Radial glial cells facilitate the movement of neurons from the ventricular zone to the cortical zone. What are radial glial cells?

  1. bipolar-shaped progenitor cells
  2. fully differentiated glial cells
  3. pseudopolar shaped progenitor cells
  4. naive astrocytes
A
  1. bipolar-shaped progenitor cells
    - responsible for producing all of the neurons in the cerebral cortex (most outer part of the brain)
27
Q

Radial glial cells provide the scaffolding for new neurons to migrate from the ventricular zone to the cortical zone. Neurons are able to use part of their intracellular machinery that allows them to use the scaffolding laid down by the radial glial cells and move up to cerebral layers like a spider. What is this called?

  1. radial glial osmosis
  2. radial glial translocation
  3. radial glial migration
  4. radial glial extension
A
  1. radial glial migration
28
Q

What does the inside out model of cortical development lead to?

A
  • formation of the 6 layers of the cerebral cortex
29
Q

Why is the inside-out model of cortical development called the inside out model?

A
  • neurons migrate from ventricular zone (VZ) to layer 1 (closest to the skull)
  • the next neurons from the VZ have to migrate to level 2
  • this continues up to level 6 (closest to ventricular zone)
30
Q

Infant neurogenesis begins at the ventricular zone, but where does adult neurogenesis occur?

  1. sub-ventricular zone and hippocampus
  2. ventricular zone and hippocampus
  3. sub-ventricular zone and thalamus
  4. ventricular zone and thalamus
A
  1. sub-ventricular zone and hippocampus
  • specifically dentate gyrus in hippocampus
  • olfactory also has some adult neurogenesis
31
Q

What cell type does adult neurongenesis begin as?

A
  • neuronal stem cell
  • neuroblasts
32
Q

In adult neurongenesis they begin as neuronal stem cells and then into neuroblasts in the sub ventricular zone of the lateral ventricles. Once the neuroblasts have differentiated into immature neurons what 2 places do they migrate to?

  1. cerebral cortex and thalamus
  2. cerebral cortex and hippocampus
  3. cerebral cortex and olfactory bulb
  4. cerebral cortex and cerebellum
A
  1. cerebral cortex and olfactory bulb
33
Q

Once newly formed neurons have migrated along the rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb, what happens to them?

A
  • integrated into the already formed neuronal network
  • migration is guided by physical, molecular and electricl signals
34
Q

When new neurons have been formed and they try to merge with an already established network. In order for them to move to where they should move to, what 2 signalling methods are used

  1. chemoattraction and hormonal
  2. chemorepulsion and hormonal
  3. chemoattraction and chemorepulsion
  4. chemorepulsion and rejection
A
  1. chemoattraction and chemorepulsion
  • chemoattraction - new neuron moves up the concentration gradient of a chemoattractant
  • chemorepulsion - new neuron is repelled by a specific chemoattractant
35
Q

When new neurons have been formed and they try to merge with an already established network, there are a number of different things they can do to merge. The 2 most important for us are chemoattraction (attracted to a specific stimuli) and and chemorepulsion (repelled by a specific stimulus). Why are these important?

A
  • important chemical axon guidance ques where newly formed axons will integrate into exisiting neuronal networks
36
Q

Commissural neurons are one of the tracts that facilitate communication between the left and right hemisphere and cross the spinal cord, such as the corpus callosum. Why is chemoattraction and chemorepulsion important in commissural neurons?

A
  • tells neurons where they are needed
  • netrin is a chemiattractant a signalling molecule on the floor plate of the neural tube. So it tells some neurons to connect to it, and others not to
37
Q

When we are born the body produces too many neurons in early embryonic development. As there are too many what happens to these excess neurons?

A
  • apoptosis (programmed cell death)
38
Q

When we are born the body produces too many neurons in early embryonic development. As there are too many neurons they undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death). Is this random?

A
  • no
  • neurotrophins regualte this process
39
Q

When we are born the body produces too many neurons in early embryonic development. As there are too many neurons they undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) which is controlled by neurotrophins. What are 3 important neutrotrophins?

A

1 - neutrophins growth factor (NGF)

2 - brain derived growth factor (BDNF)

3 - fibroblast growth factor (FGF)

40
Q

Neurons are very sensitive to damage, however, some do posses the ability to regenerate. Do the neurons of the CNS or PNS possess a better regenerative capacity?

A
  • PNS
41
Q

Neurons are very sensitive to damage, however, some do posses the ability to regenerate. The neurons of the PNS possess a better regenerative capacity than those in the CNS. What is the main cell that drives this regenerative capacity?

  1. macrophages
  2. cytokines
  3. neutrophils
  4. schwann cells
A
  1. schwann cells mainly
    - macrophages help by removing debris
42
Q

Neurons are very sensitive to damage, however, some do posses the ability to regenerate. The neurons of the PNS possess a better regenerative capacity. Schwann cells are the main cell that drive this regenerative capacity. What are the 2 main roles the schwann cells play in regeneration in the PNS?

  1. removal of debris and stimulate axonal growth
  2. re-myelineate axons and stimulate axonal growth
  3. removal of debris and re-myelineate axon
  4. stimulate immune response and stimulate axonal growth
A
  1. re-myelineate axons and stimulate axonal growth
43
Q

Neurons are very sensitive to damage, however, some do posses the ability to regenerate. The neurons of the CNS possess a poor regenerative capacity. Why is this?

  1. macrophages and reactive astrocytes do poor job and lay down collagen
  2. macrophages and reactive microglia do poor job and lay down collagen
  3. macrophages and reactive oligodendrocytes do poor job and lay down collagen
  4. macrophages and reactive astrocytes do poor job, scars form and poor re-myelination
A
  1. macrophages and reactive astrocytes do poor job, scars form and poor re-myelination
44
Q

Neurons are very sensitive to damage, however, some do posses the ability to regenerate. The neurons of the CNS possess a poor regenerative capacity due to the formation of a glial scar. Although they cannot regenerate well, what are they good at?

  1. rapid neurogenesis
  2. rapid cell differentiation
  3. rapid neuronal cell mitosis
  4. synaptic plasticity (re-organising)
A
  1. synaptic plasticity (re-organising)
45
Q

The critical period is an important time point in neural development, what is it?

A
  • time during postnatal neural development
  • neuronal plasticity is dependent on environmental signals
46
Q

The critical period is an important time point in neural development, which is the time during postnatal neural development where neuronal plasticity is dependent on environmental signals. Is there just one critical period?

A
  • no
  • the time is variable
  • can be multiple critical periods, such as binocular vision, language skills
47
Q

Critical periods are characterised by what?

  1. increased hormones levels
  2. increased growth factor levels
  3. increased neuronal plasticity
  4. increased excitatory neurons
A
  1. increased neuronal plasticity
    - more adaptation occurs due to stimulus to our brains
48
Q

If a specific function such as speech is not learned sufficiently at a critical period what could this lead to?

A
  • poor speech or lack of speech function
  • example of eyesight in the image below, but the same principle
49
Q

Does cortical plasticity increase or decrease with age?

A
  • decreases with age
50
Q

If someone had a few fingers amputated what could happen in the brain, specifically in the post-central gyrus

A
  • cortical plasticity would occur
  • skin near the amputation would receive similar stimulus as previously felt in the fingers
51
Q

The somatosensory cortex is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from across the body. Are all parts of the somatosensory cortex that are linked with different senses the same size?

A
  • no
  • size of somatosensory cortex is dependent on complexity of functions
  • face and mouth have a large somatosensory cortex
  • hips or foot have a small somatosensory cortex area as their functions are limited
52
Q

The somatosensory cortex is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from across the body. Different body parts have different volumes in the somatosensory cortex, which is linked to the complexity of that body part. Why is this important?

A
  • greater density of sensory receptors have a higher cortical plasticity
  • so hands would have greater cortical plasticity than the feet
53
Q

New memories are dependent on the development of new neuronal cells, called neurogenesis. Specifically where does the development occur in the brain?

  1. dentate gyrus in the hippocampus
  2. dentate gyrus in ventricles
  3. dentate gyrus in the cerebellum
  4. dentate gyrus in the cerebral cortex layer 1
A
  1. dendate gyrus within the hippocampus
54
Q

The computational theories of memory suggests what in relation to memory?

A
  • new memories require cortical plasticity
  • new memories = new neuron formation in dendate gyrus of the hippocampus
  • older memories are encoded in the pre exisitng neuronal network

NSB! (53 decks)

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