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A Level Biology > Plant and Animal Responses > Flashcards

Plant and Animal Responses Flashcards

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1
Q

2 types of cells that make up the NS?

A

Neurons & glial cells

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2
Q

Neurons?

A

transmit via APs

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3
Q

Glial cells?

A

help nutrients pass into neurons, help balance the conc of ions, myelination (Schwann cells), phagocytosis, may be involved in stimulating the formation of new synapses

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4
Q

2 branches of the NS?

A

Central nervous system & peripheral nervous system

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5
Q

2 branches of the peripheral NS?

A

somatic NS and autonomic NS

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6
Q

Autonomic NS?

A

• Anything that happens w/o thought = automatic
• input: internal muscles
output: SM & glands

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7
Q

2 branches of autonomic NS?

A
  • Sympathetic NS

* Parasympathetic NS

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8
Q

Peripheral NS?

A

all neurons outside CNS

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9
Q

Somatic NS?

A
  • All to skeletal NS

* conscious control

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10
Q

CNS?

A

= brain and SC
• majority of this is intermediate neurons
• includes meninges

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11
Q

meninges?

A
  • made of 3 layers
  • protect CNS from pathogens and mechanical damage
  • secretes CSF (specialised TF)
  • The meninges are the connective tissue coverings of the brain and SC
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12
Q

Cerebro spinal fluid?

A
  • specialised TF

* Fills spaces in brain and & SC and therefore acts as a shock absorbed, also provides nutrients and O2 to cells

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13
Q

Gyri of the brain?

A

the ridges

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14
Q

sulci=

A

the grooves

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15
Q

-itis?

A

inflammation

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16
Q

CNS?

A
  • Mainly IN, short dendrites, as many as 200,000 synapses with neighbouring cells (role to integrate)
  • synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory (prevents AP)
  • SC is really just an extension of the brain, connects and runs down the spinal canal as far as the lumber region
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17
Q

in the centre of the SC…

A

is CSF

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18
Q

PNS?

A
  • All of the neurons outside CNS
  • contains all of the neurons that connect CNS to the rest of the body
  • SN carry nerve impulses from receptors to CNS
  • motor neurons which carry APs from CNS to effectors
  • function of the PNS is to connect CNS to periphery of the body
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19
Q

SN?

A

• Carry afferent APs from PNS ➡ CNS - sensory input

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20
Q

motor output?

A

• MN carry efferent APs from CNS to effectors

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21
Q

Autonomic NS?

A
  • The Para NS and Sympa NS are antagonistic
  • when one is inhibited, other is activated
  • contains all motor neurons to internal organs
  • controls all SM and cardiac muscl
  • self adjusting
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22
Q

cell bodies of MN are outside the?

A

CNS, unlike somatic which go all the way to the effector

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23
Q

if a neuron goes outside,

A

look at cell body to determine if CNS or PNS

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24
Q

Autonomic cell bodies?

A
  • situated in autonomic ganglia

* all contain a preganglionic neuron which carries AP from CNS to ganglion

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25
Q

Sympathetic NS?

A
  • Axons of preganglionic neuron leave ventral root
  • synapse at the ganglia
  • goes to all organs
  • noradrenaline used
  • some use ACh (sweat glands, some blood vessels)
  • fight or flight
  • all signals via spinal nerves which go to ganglions
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26
Q

fight or flight repsonse?

A

response to stress, causes release of adrenaline

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27
Q

parasympathetic and sympathetic are?

A
  • antagonistic

* when one is stimulated, other is inhibited

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28
Q

fight or flight?

A
  • release of adrenaline
  • ⬆resp, ⬆HR, ⬆BR
  • contraction of radial muscles of the iris to dilate pupil
  • relax urethera sphincter and relax anal sphincter
  • constriction of arterioles in DS
  • dilation of arterioles in skeletal muscles
  • saliva production stopped to save water and energy
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29
Q

Parasympathetic NS?

A
  • All nerve pathways are either at the top or base of the SC
  • No Ganglion - synapse just before the effector organ
  • most neurons leave at the top in a large nerve called the vagus nerve
  • NT is Ach, usually inhibitory, but cab be excitatory
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30
Q

Rest and digest?

A
  • stimulates digestive activity - peristalsis - SM contracting pushing things along
  • salivary glands
  • not a very sig effect
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31
Q

which muscles contract causing the pupil to constrict?

A

circular muscles

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32
Q

The reflex arc?

A

stimulus ➡ receptor ➡ SC not CNS ➡ Effector ➡ response

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33
Q

a reflex is?

A

involuntary, stereotyped response to a sensory stimulus - often a survival or protective response

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34
Q

the knee-jerk reflex?

A
  • used by the body to maintain posture and balance, allowing us to remain balanced with little conscious thought
  • pain receptors in the knee detect hammer
  • send signals down a sensory neuron to CNS which enter CNS thru dorsal route
  • MN activated wihin SC
  • MN carries AP to effector down ventral route
  • effector (flexor muscle) contracts
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35
Q

reflexes can be used ti?

A

diagnose issues with SC. Specific reflexes test spec spinal nerves

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36
Q

Brain?

A

• controls how we perceive, think, learn, remember e.g.

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37
Q

Gross structure of the brain?

A
  • Hindbrain
  • Midbrain
  • Forebrain
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38
Q

Hindbrain?

A

Pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum

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39
Q

Midbrain?

A

Brain stem in Midbrain and hindbrain

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40
Q

Forebrain?

A
  • Cerebrum
  • thalamus
  • hypothalamus
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41
Q

cerebrum?

A

learning, memory, personality, conscious thought

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42
Q

cerebellum?

A

unconscious functions, posture and balance

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43
Q

hypothalamus?

A

regulator centre, temp, H2O - contains osmoreceptors

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44
Q

medulla oblongata?

A

controls autonomic NS, HR, breathing

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45
Q

pituitary gland?

A

hormones

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46
Q

5 main brain areas?

A
  • cerebellum
  • hypothalamus
  • MO
  • cerebrum
  • pituitary gland
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47
Q

Cerebrum [detailed]

A
  • largest part, covers rest of the brain, it’s the visible surface of the brain
  • reecives sensory info ➡relates this info to past exp➡ sends impulse down MN to effectors
  • controls all voluntary responses & some involuntary
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48
Q

cerebrum has 2 hemispheres?

A

L&R - connected via corpus callosum

49
Q

frontal lobe?

A
  • part of cerebrum

* most reasoning/ decision making

50
Q

outer layer of cerebrum is known as?

A

cerebral cortex

51
Q

why does the right side of the brain receive signals from the left side of the body?

A

• neurons cross over at the back of the brain

52
Q

Cerebral cortex main areas?

A
  • frontal lobe
  • parietal lobe
  • temporal lobes
  • occipital lobe
53
Q

frontal lobe?

A

intelligence, personality, thought

54
Q

parietal lobe?

A

sensory and motor function

55
Q

temporal lobe?

A

emotion/auditory

56
Q

occipital lobe?

A

visual

57
Q

3 main types of functional area in the CC?

A
  1. sensory areas
  2. association areas
  3. motor areas
58
Q

sensory areas?

A

receive APs from sense organs - input

59
Q

association areas?

A

process and co-ordinate sensory input - form associations with prev. exps - processing

60
Q

motor areas?

A

APs generated and sent to effectors - output

61
Q

Sensory area, association areas, motor areas

A
  • each sensory area receives info from receptor cells
  • size of sensory area is dependent on the sense organ
  • impulse then goes to association area (analysed)
  • impulse sent to motor areas, which send impulse down a NM to effector
62
Q

main area of motor function?

A

primary cortex just at the back of the frontal lobe

63
Q

association areas are often found close to?

A

corresponding senory areas

64
Q

cerebellum?

A
  • does not initiate movement, just co-ordinates
  • balance receptors in the ear signal
  • tweaks by changing tones in muscles and tendons
  • receives input from sensory areas
  • outputs APs to motor areas to fine tune motor activity
65
Q

pons?

A
  • relays AP from forebrain to cerebellum

* sleep, posture

66
Q

hippocampus?

A
  • short term ➡ long term memory

* part of limbic system - emotions

67
Q

hypothalamus?

A
  • area of forebrain found just above PG
  • links NS and ES thru PG
  • produces releasing factors which cause the anterior pituitary to release hormones e.g. growth hormone
  • contains receptors like osmoreceptors which cause neurosecretory cells to release hormones into capillaries of posterior pituitary
  • responsible for thermoregulation, osmoregulation, hunger, thirst, fatigue
68
Q

pituitary gland?

A

• consists of anterior and posterior pituitary

69
Q

medulla oblongata?

A
  • lower portion of the brain stem, just b4 SC
  • responsible for autonomic functions lik BP and breathing
  • contains cardiac centre = responsible for controlling HR
70
Q

anterior pititary?

A
  • neurosecretory cells secrete growth hormone releasing factor
  • GHRF causes endocrine cells to secrete GH
71
Q

Posterior pituitary?

A
  • osmoreceptors detect low blood WP and activate neurosecretory cells
  • neurosecretory cells secrete ADH
72
Q

Neurons in CNS?

A

relay

73
Q

Neurons in Peripheral NS?

A

SN & MN

74
Q

Somatic NS

A

input from sense organs, output to skeletal muscles

75
Q

Autonomic NS

A

input from internal receptors, output to SM and glands

76
Q

Sympathetic NS NT?

A

noradrenaline

77
Q

Parasympathetic NS NT?

A

Ach

78
Q

Adrenaline release (somatic NS)

A
  • Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline
  • stimulated by envir stimulus
  • adrenaline causes fight/ flight
  • Amplification cascade caused by cAMP
79
Q

Amplification cascade?

A

millions of glucose molecules made from glycogen instantaneously

80
Q

Fight or flight response

A
  • Respiration rate inc
  • causes blood pH to decrease (carbonic acid dissociates)
  • causing acidosis
  • so rate of CO2 excretion must inc
  • HR increases to inc CO2 delivery to lungs
  • this would raise blood pH back to normal
81
Q

Control of HR: Medulla contains

A
  • cardio acceleratory centre

* cardioinhibtory centre

82
Q

cardioacceleratory centre is connected to SAN via?

A

accelerator nerve

83
Q

cardioinhibitory centre is connected to SAN via?

A

vagus nerve

84
Q

Baroreceptors?

A
  • detect pressure changes in aorta and carotid arteries
  • if pressure is high CI stimulated
  • if low CA stimulated
85
Q

Accelerator nerve?

A

increases HR

86
Q

Vagus nerve?

A

decreases HR

87
Q

The cardiac centre?

A

controls HR, contains CIC and CAC

88
Q

What do chemoreceptors do?

A
  • monitor blood pH
  • Too high = CI stimulated
  • too low = CA stimulated
89
Q

If HR ⬇?

A
  • BP and pH decrease
  • detected by baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
  • CAC activated
  • APs move along accelerator nerve
  • noradrenaline released at SAN
  • HR ⬆, adrenaline sec ⬆
90
Q

if HR is too ⬆?

A
  • pH too high as CO2 excretion too high
  • baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
  • CIC activated, APs along vagus nerve
  • ACh released at SAN
  • HR and adrenaline secretion decreases
91
Q

nervous and hormonal communication of HR is an e.g. of

A

negative feedback

92
Q

Sarco =

A

flesh

93
Q

What needs to occur before a muscle can contract?

A

myosin binding sites need to be exposed

94
Q

NMJ?

A

a synapse between a MN and muscle fibre

95
Q

Types of muscle?

A

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

96
Q

Skeletal muscle?

A
  • attaches skeleton

* only contract w stim from MN

97
Q

smooth muscle?

A
  • arteries, bronchi, airways
  • all BC other than capillaries
  • any BV that is not attached to a skeleton
98
Q

cardiac muscle?

A

heart

99
Q

which types of muscle are striated?

A

skeletal and cardiac

100
Q

what is a muscle fibre called?

A

syncytium

101
Q

SM is ran entirely by _____ NS?

A

autonomic

102
Q

When muscles contract?

A

end up exerting a force on the bone, so we end up pulling on body parts

103
Q

Muscles in the upper arm?

A
  • 2 main
  • when the bicep contracts it pulls the radius and ulna towards the scapular bending the arm
  • at the same time, the tricep muscle lengthens
  • when the tricep contracts, the arm straightens - extensor muscle
  • an antagonistic pair
  • so we have controlled moment
104
Q

muscles always work in ?

A

pairs

105
Q

each muscle fibre?

A

lies parallel to one another

106
Q

muscle fibres can ? but we can’t make more muscle

A

swell

107
Q

structure of a muscle fibre?

A
  • lots of cells where the PM has broken down between them, leading to a giant multinucleated cell
  • these syncytium are surrounded by a specialised plasma membrane called the sarcolemma
  • many mitochondria
  • lots of SER - called sarcoplasmic reticulum
108
Q

longitudinal stripes in a muscle fibre are called ?

A

myofibrils. Around these are organelles pushed to the edges

109
Q

what are the invaginations of the sarcolemma called?

A

T tubules

110
Q

sarcoplasm?

A

cytoplasm of muscle cell- not v much

111
Q

actin appearance on micrograph?

A

thin, appears lighter

112
Q

A band ?

A

myosin + interlocking actin

113
Q

I band?

A

actin only

114
Q

H band ?

A

where there is only myosin - no actin

115
Q

Z line to Z line

A

anchor of actin

116
Q

M line ?

A

anchor of myosin

117
Q

one complete unit/sarcomere ?

A

Z line to Z line

118
Q

When muscles contract,

A

they slide over each other and get shorter - I band

A Level Biology (28 decks)

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