Plan Making and Implementation Flashcards
What are the three steps to planning?
1) Goals and visions;
2) Analysis of current problems;
3) Creation and evaluation of alternatives
What are surveys most often used for in planning?
To obtain citizen input. They are used to collect data on a topic that cannot be directly observed, and are used to assess attitudes on a wide range of topics.
What is a sampling frame?
A sampling frame is a the population of interest used as a sample in a survey.
What is the difference between a cross-sectional survey and a longitudinal survey?
A cross-sectional survey gathers information about a population at a single point in time. A longitudinal survey is conducted over a period of time.
What is a written survey and what are its pros and cons?
Written surveys can be mailed, printed in a newspaper, or administered in a group setting. They’re popular when a planner is trying to reach a broad audience. This method is low-cost and generally convenient for survey-takers. However, mail surveys have a low response rate and requires participants are able to read and write.
What is a group-administered survey and what are its pros and cons?
Group-administered surveys are best when there is a specific population that a planner is trying to target. This form of surveying allows a high and quick response rate. The difficulty is gathering everyone you need to survey in one place. Therefore, sample size is generally small.
What is a drop-off survey and what are its pros and cons?
A Drop-off survey allows the survey to be dropped off at someone’s residence or business. Respondents are free to complete the survey at their convenience. Response rates are higher than with a mail survey because the person dropping off the survey may have personal contact with the respondent. This method can be expensive because of the time required to distribute the surveys. Tends to be a small sample size.
What are oral surveys?
Can be administered on the phone or in person.
What is a phone survey and what are its pros and cons?
Phone surveys are useful when you need yes/no answers. Surveys on the phone or in person allow the interviewer to follow up and gain further explanation on answers. The response rate varies greatly, depending on the ability to reach potential respondents. Response rates for phone surveys are declining. Phone surveys are usually more expensive than mail or internet-based surveys. Phone and in-person interviews can be biased due to interaction with the interviewer. Long questions and those with multiple answers are difficult to administer using this method.
What is an online survey and what are its pros and cons?
Online surveys are popular. These can be administered on a website, e-mail, or text message. This is an inexpensive method of surveying that can generate quick responses. Electronic surveys have a higher response rate than written or interview surveys. The downside is that you will not reach people without Internet access, which can introduce significant bias.
What is stratified sampling and is it a probability or non-probability method of sampling??
(probability) The population is divided into separate groups or classes, from which a sample is drawn such that the classes in the population are represented by the classes in the sample.
What is cluster sampling and is it a probability or non-probability method of sampling??
(probability) A cluster sample is a special form of stratified sampling, where a specific target group out of the general population is sampled from, such as the elderly, or residents of a specific neighborhood.
What is a convenience sample and is it a probability or non-probability method of sampling?
(non-probability) A sample of individuals who are readily available.
What is a snowball sample and is it a probability or non-probability method of sampling?
(non-probability) Where one interviewed person suggests other potential interviewees.
What is a volunteer sample and is it a probability or non-probability method of sampling?
(non-probability) Self-selected respondents - for example, a wiki map (volunteered geographic information)
Define nominal data.
Data that is classified into mutually exclusive groups or categories and lack intrinsic order (i.e. unordered factors in R).
Define ordinal data.
Data in ordered categories implying a ranking of observations (e.g. letter grades).
Define interval data.
Data with an ordered relationship where the difference between the scales has a meaningful interpretation. The typical example is temperature, where the difference between 40 and 30 degrees is the same as between 30 and 20 degrees, but 20 degrees is not twice as cold as 40 degrees.
Define ratio data.
Ratio data is the gold standard of measurement, where both absolute and relative differences have a meaning. The classic example of ratio data is a distance measure, where the difference between 40 and 30 miles is the same as the difference between 30 and 20 miles, and in addition, 40 miles is twice as far as 20 miles.
What is a continuous variable?
Continuous variables can take an infinite number of values, both positive and negative, and with as fine a degree of precision as desired.
What is a discrete variable?
Discrete variables can only take on a finite number of distinct values. An example is the count of the number of events, such as the number of accidents per month. Such counts cannot be negative, and only take on integer values, such as 1, 28, or 211.
What is a binary variable?
A type of discrete variable - variables with a finite number of distinct values - which can only take on two values, usually 0 or 1.
What is the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics?
Descriptive statistics describe the sample; inferential statistics use probability to determine/infer characteristics of a population based on a sample.
What is the normal/Gaussian distribution?
The bell curve. The distribution is symmetric and has the additional property that the spread around the mean can be related to the proportion of observations. More specifically, 95% of the observations that follow a normal distribution are within two standard deviations from the mean. Often used for statistical inference.
What is a skewed distribution?
When data are asymmetrically skewed above or below the mean.
What is dispersion, and what are it’s two most common measures?
Data is often defined by its central tendency (mean, median, mode, etc). However, dispersion covers how its values are spread around the center. The two most commonly used measures and variance and standard deviation.
What is sampling error?
The error when you infer from a sample to an entire population. Inherent in inferential statistics; different than systematic error (such as model misspecification).
What is a Type I error in statistics?
When we reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is correct. We want this probability to be small, so typically a significance of 5% or 1% is chosen as a benchmark.
Describe a t-test.
Typically used to compare the means of two populations based on their sample averages (two-sample t-test - a single one compares the sample average to a hypothesized value for the mean). The null hypothesis is that the two population means are equal. However, since we do not observe the actual means, but only the sample averages, we can only make probabilistic statements about whether they’re equal or not.
Describe the Linear Method of population estimation/projection.
Uses the change in population over a period of time and extrapolates this change to the future in a linear fashion.
Describe the Exponential and Modified Exponential Method of population estimation/projection.
The exponential method uses the rate of change over a period of time to estimate the current or future population.
Describe the Symptomatic Method of population estimation/projection.
Uses any available data indirectly related to population size, such as housing starts or new drivers licenses. Then it estimates the population using a ratio, such as average household size (Census).
Describe the Step-Down Ratio Method of population estimation/projection.
Uses the ratio of the population in a city/county/region at a point in time (decennial Census). Use this ratio to project current/future population.
Population of city is 20% of county in 2000. If the county population is 20,000 in 2005, we estimate the population of the city is 20% of that (4,000).
Describe the Distributed Housing Unit Method of projecting/estimating population.
This method uses Census data for number of housing units and multiplies it by occupancy rate and persons per household. Reliable for slow growth/stable communities - not for communities changing quickly.
Describe the Cohort Survival Method of projecting/estimating population.
The cohort survival method uses current population + natural increase (births, deaths) and net migration (in-migration, out-migration) to estimate future population. Calculated by gender and age group.
Most accurate of the methods, but requires the most data.
How is the Death Rate calculated?
The Death Rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people.
How is the Crude Birth Rate calculated? How is the General Fertility Rate calculated? How is the Age-Specific Fertility Rate calculated?
The Crude Birth Rate is the total number of births per 1,000 people. The General Fertility Rate is the number of babies born per 1,000 females of childbearing age. The Age-Specific Fertility Rate is the number of babies born per 1,000 females in a given age group.
Describe the Economic Base Analysis method of economic analysis (includes basic activities vs. non-basic activities, location quotients).
Economic base analysis looks at basic and non-basic economic activities. Basic activities are those that can be exported, while non-basic activities are those that are locally oriented. The exporting industries make up the economic base of a region.
In order to identify economic base industries, a location quotient is calculated for each industry. The location quotient is the ratio of an industry’s share of local employment divided by its share of the nation (or other levels of government). A location quotient of less than one indicates an importing economy. If the quotient is greater than one then the area is an exporting economy.
Describe the Shift-Share Analysis method of economic analysis.
Shift-share analysis analyzes a local economy in comparison to a larger economy. Looks at the differential shift, proportional shift, and economic growth.
Uses employment information by sector for two points in time. Total employment change between those two time points in an industry is equal to the economic growth + the differential shift + proportional shift.
Describe the Input-Output Analysis method of economic analysis, its requirements (four groups), assumptions (six), and what it is often used for?
A quantitative method that links suppliers and purchasers to determine a region’s economic output. I-O analysis is similar to the economic base analysis in that it uses an economy’s structure to determine the economy in the future.
Identifies primary suppliers, intermediate suppliers, intermediate purchasers, final purchasers. An I-O analysis is composed of three tables: transactions, direct requirements, and total requirements.
I-O analysis assumes there are no economies of scale, tech and labor are static, inputs are not substitutable, and each industry only produces one group of goods. Consumption of goods is constant, no national imports or exports. An economy’s total output is equal to total production plus intermediate sales.
Based on the analysis, a series of multipliers are applied to determine spin-off employment. They are numerical coefficients that relate a change in demand to a consequent change in total income.
Requires a very large quantity of data, which makes it a costly method to implement.
It is often used to determine the employment effect of a particular project on a local economy (example: construction of major league football stadium).
What percentage of households received the longford Census survey in 2000? What percentage received the short form? What was the rate of response in the 1990/2000 Census?
17% received the long form; 83% received the short form. The response rate was 65% in 1990/2000.
Define an Urbanized Area.
Urban nucleus of 50,000 or more people. Generally must have a population density of 1,000 persons per square mile. In 2000, 68% of the US population lived in 452 urbanized areas.
Define an Urban Cluster.
At least 2,500 people but less than 50,000 and a population density of 1,000 persons per square mile. New for the 2000 Census. In 2000, 11% of the US population lived in 3,158 urban clusters.
Define a metropolitan statistical area (MSA).
Includes at least one city with a 50,000 or more inhabitants, or an urbanized area (of at least 50,000 inhabitants), and a total metropolitan population of at least 100,000.
Define a micropolitan statistical area (MSA).
A Micropolitan Statistical Area has a population of 10,000 people and less than 50,000. This includes a central county and adjacent counties that have a high degree of social and economic integration as measured by commuting.
Define a Census Designated Place.
Is the equivalent of an incorporated place for data purposes. This is for settled concentrations of population that are not incorporated.
Define a Consolidated MSA.
A consolidated MSA is made up of PMSAs. An example is the Dallas-Fort Worth Consolidated Metropolitan Area. Dallas and Fort Worth are each primary metropolitan statistical areas.
Define a Core Based Statistical Area (CBSA).
Defined by the US Office and Budget to provide data description for areas where there is a core area with at least 10,000 people that when combined with other adjacent communities is socially and economically integrated.
Define a Megalopolis, including who coined the term and when.
In 1961, Jean Gottman published Megalopolis, a book about the NEC. The Oxford Dictionary defines a megalopolis as “any many-centered, multi-city, urban area of more than 10 million inhabitants, generally dominated by low-density settlement and complex networks of economic specialization.” The term megacity refers specifically to the megalopolis areas with more than 10 million people.
Define a Census Tract.
Typically has a population between 2,000-8,000 people. Smallest area where all Census information is released.
Define a Census Block.
Is the smallest level at which the Census data is collected. There are typically 400 housing units per block.
Define a Census Block Group.
A group of Census Blocks.
Define a Tribal Designated Statistical Area.
A unit drawn by tribes that do not have a recognized land area. These are defined independently of the standard county-based census delineations.
What is a Threshold Population?
A term many government programs to determine program eligibility. For example, Phase II Stormwater requirements automatically apply if a city meets minimum threshold population.
What is Public Use Microdata Sample/Public Use Microdata Areas?
Refer to untabulated records about individual people or housing units available through the American Community Survey. Available to create custom tables that are not available through pretabulated/summary ACS products.
What are the fastest growing states (range of growth) between the 2000 and 2010 Census?
Nevada (35%), Arizona (25%), and. Utah (24%)
What are the fastest growing metropolitan areas (range of growth) between the 2000 and 2010 Census?
Palm Coast, FL; St. George, UT; Las Vegas, NV; Raleigh, NC; Cape Coral, FL; Provo, UT; Greely, CO; Austin, TX; Myrtle Beach, SC; and Bend, OR
What percent of the US population lives in urban areas?
As of the 2010 Census, 81%
What was the average household size in 2010 and how is it trending long-term?
2.59 and trending down (was 3.1 in 1970)
What was the median age in 2010 and how it is trending long-term?
Rose to 37.2 years old
What is the American Community Survey, when did it begin, and what did it replace?
The ACS replaced the long form in the decennial Census, takes a sample of the population and projects the findings of the population as a whole.
The ACS began on a nationwide basis back in 2005. Reaches 2.5% each year (1 in 40 addresses, approximately 3 million households). The survey rotates annually so that no household receives the survey more than once every five years. Starting in 2006, data was available on an annual basis for all areas with a population of 65,000 or more. For smaller areas, data is reported every three to five years.
One significant difference between the long form and the ACS is that the ACS asks for income received in the last 12 months, which is done on a rolling basis, rather than just for the year preceding the census year.
What is UrbanSim?
UrbanSim is a simulation software program that models planning and urban development. This free software program is designed to be used by Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs). More details about UrbanSim are provided on its website.
What is CommunityViz?
CommunityViz is an ESRI software environment that allows agencies to analyze land use scenarios and create 3D images. This allows citizens to visualize the potential for development and redevelopment.
What is a design charrette? When is it used effectively?
An intensive collaborative effort that brings together citizens, stakeholders, and a. staff to develop a detailed design plan for a specific area.
Effective technique for quickly developing consensus.
What is the Delphi method of public participation?
A structured process of participation with the intent of coming to a consensus decision. Created in 1944 for the US Army Air Force.
A panel of selected, informed citizens and stakeholders are asked to complete a series of questionnaires, typically written as hypotheses. After each round of questioning, feedback on the responses is presented to the group anonymously. Participants are encouraged to revise answers based on the replies heard. Over time, the range of answers decreases and the group converges towards a single solution.
What is the Nominal Group Technique of public participation?
A group process involving problem identification, solution generation, and decision making that can be used for groups of any size that want to come to a decision by vote.
Allows for everyone’s opinions to be considered by starting with everyone’s opinions being shared briefly. Someone creates a list of ideas, duplicate solutions are removed, and participants rank solutions. Rankings are discussed, leading to further ideas or combinations. Highest ranked solution is selected.
What is facilitation (public participation method)?
Uses a person who does not have a direct stake in the outcome (typically a volunteer from the community who is respected by all groups) to help groups that disagree to work together to solve complex problems and come to consensus.
What is mediation (public participation method)? When is it used?
A method in which a neutral third party facilitates discussion in a structured multi-stage process to help parties reach a satisfactory agreement.
Assists parties in identifying and articulating interests and priorities. The agreement should specify measurable, achievable, and realistic solutions and should be in writing.
Used to resolve conflict without involving the courts.
What is a public hearing?
Usually associated with the Planning Commission, City Council, or other governing body. Allow formal citizen input at the end of the planning process. Often, hearings are mandated by law. Not effective for building public participation and consensus.
What is a visual preference survey?
A technique that can be used to assist citizens in evaluating physical images of natural and built environments. Citizens view and evaluate a variety of pictures depicting houses, sites, building styles, streetscapes, etc. Aggregated scores can be used to determine resident preferences.
How do you convert a map scale into a distance in linear miles? Try 1:2,000,000.
You divide the second number by 12 (12 inches in a foot). Then you divide by 5,280 (feet in a mile). There’s the number of linear miles represented in an inch of the map.
When does a scoping meeting occur during the EIS process, and what is it for?
A scoping meeting should be held early in the EIS preparation. Often the first contact between proponents of the proposal and the public. Introduces both sides of an issue and engages interested parties.
It’s meant to assist preparers of EIS to explain the project to the public and affected agencies. Participants respond with own concerns and suggestions.
What are the four sections typically found in an EIS?
- Intro, which includes a Purpose and Need and a Proposed Action;
- Description of the Affected Environment;
- Range of Alternatives to the proposed action; and
- Analysis of environmental impacts of alternatives.
Describe a cost-benefit analysis analysis, why you would undertake one, and the primary structure and challenges.
Estimates the total monetary value of the benefits and the costs to the community of a project to determine whether they should be undertaken (often public projects).
Cost-benefit analysis requires that all costs and benefits be converted to a monetary value. This means that social and environmental benefits, such as the preservation of open space, have a monetary value. This is one of the biggest challenges in conducting cost-benefit analyses.
The costs and benefits must be set for a particular time and for a specified location.
In order to determine the cost-benefit, the proposed project is compared to the current situation without the project.
Describe a cost-effectiveness analysis and why you would undertake it.
A method developed by the military for selecting among competing projects when resources are limited.
The cost-effectiveness ratio is the: cost of a new strategy minus the cost of current practice, all divided by the effect of a new strategy minus the effect of current practice.
What is Net Present Value?
Shows the net monetary value of a project, discounted to today’s present value.
For example, if the net present value of a proposed hockey arena is greater than zero then one can conclude that the monetary benefit of the hockey arena outweighs its monetary costs. To calculate net present value you need to know the years of the project’s lifespan, the quantified monetary benefits, the monetary costs and the interest rate for discounting purposes.
An alternative is to calculate an internal rate of return. In this case, the project’s net present value is at zero and the interest rate is blank. If the calculation results in an interest rate that is greater than the available market interest rate then the project would be financially beneficial.
What is a Gantt chart and when would you use one?
The Gantt Chart was developed in 1917 by Charles Gantt.
This chart focuses on the sequence of tasks necessary for project completion. Each task is represented as a single horizontal bar on an X-Y chart. The X-axis is the time scale over which the project will endure. The length of each taskbar corresponds to the duration of each task.
The relationship usually shows dependency, where one task cannot begin until another is completed.
What is linear programming (project management)?
Method that attempts to find optimum design solution for a project. Takes a system of decision variables within constraints and optimizes a design solution.
What is Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)? When is it appropriate?
A scheduling method developed by the Navy in the 1950s (now widely used in the defense industry) that graphically illustrates the interrelationships of project tasks. Good choice when precise time estimates are not available for project tasks. Works for large-scale projects and is often done in a project management software.
Process involves the following steps:
- Identify activities and milestones
- Determines proper sequence
- Construct a network diagram
- Determine critical path
- Update chart as project progresses
Over time, merged with CPM and became one method.
What is Critical Path Method (CPM) in project management?
A tool to analyze a project. Results in a “critical path” through the project tasks. Each project task has a known amount of time to complete and cannot be completed before the previous one is completed. Longest pathway is the critical pathway.
Good for large-scale projects. Over time, merged with PERT and became one method.
Define a budget.
The allocation and expenditures of funds to provide service to the public. A budget serves to set spending priorities.
Describe the difference between an operating and a capital budget/capital improvement program (CIP).
An operating budget includes everyday expenditures of an organization, such as supplies, personnel, and maintenance of office space.
A capital budget includes long-term purchases - new building, rec center, water main, or other major equipment. A capital budget is a one-year budget for capital expenditures, while a CIP is a longer range (5-7 years) look at the capital needs of a community.
What purpose(s) do budgets serve? (up to five)
- Resource allocation - spending plan and mechanism for deciding priorities;
- Financial control - principal mechanisms in assuring resources are spent as an agency decides;
- Management control - to help improve organizational efficiency/effectiveness;
- Communication tool - communicate organizational goals and objectives; and
- Planning tool - short- and long-range forecasts of revenues, spending, community change.
Describe Line-Item Budgeting and its advantages/disadvantages.
Emphasis on projecting the budget for the next year while adding inflationary costs.
Advantages: does not require any evaluation of existing services and is easy to prepare and justify. Also easy for public officials to understand.
Disadvantages: lack of flexibility and lack of relationship between budget requests and objectives of organization. Has a short-term focus; not linked with strategic, comprehensive, or capital improvement plans. Lacks focus on programs, looks at individual expenditures rather than how those fund programs/results of programs.
Describe Planning, Programming, Budgeting Systems (PPBS) and its advantages/disadvantages.
Focused on planning through accomplishing goals set by a department. Includes the following components:
- Budget organized by program area
- Long-range planning of goals, programs, and required resources
- Policy analysis, cost-benefit analysis, program evaluation
Advantages: helps departments place their programs in perspective and evaluate efforts and accomplishments.
Disadvantages: time-consuming to prepare and requires that goals and objectives be stated in measurable terms.
PPBS has limited success because of its heavy information requirements and the incompatibility of program format with control mission.
Describe Zero-Base Budgeting (ZBB) and its advantages/disadvantages.
Emphasizes planning and fosters understanding within all units of an organization. Includes the following components:
- Efficiency and effectiveness of programs to be re-evaluated on a regular basis
- Agencies to prepare “decision packages” for each program that looks at the impact of low/med/high funding
- Decision packages ranked by executive; facilitates budget cuts by Council
Advantages: requires a department to consider every aspect of its operation and concentrate on why it does things the way it does.
Disadvantages: time-consuming to justify every activity.
ZBB has limited success because of its intensive information requirements and limited benefits to managers.
Describe Performance-based Budgeting and its advantages/disadvantages.
Focused on linking funding to performance measures. For example, funding could be tied to the amount of time it takes to process plat applications or building permits. Meeting performance goals results in funding increases.
Includes the following components:
- Traditional function/object budget
- Performance information on productivity, outputs, outcomes
- Performance and spending may be linked through cost analysis/program evaluation
Advantages: helps departments develop and evaluate performance standards.
Disadvantages: time-consuming to prepare and requires that goals and objectives be stated in measurable terms.
Describe Pas-As-You-Go financing.
Uses current funds to pay for capital improvement projects.
Describe Reserve Funds financing.
Funds that have been saved for the purchase of future capital improvements.
Describe General Obligation Bonds financing.
Voter-approved bonds for capital improvements. GO Bonds use the tax revenue of the government to pay back the debt.
Describe Revenue Bonds financing.
Use a fixed source of revenue to pay back the debt.
For example, revenue bonds could be issued to pay for a new water main. The debt would be paid back through the water use fees. Revenue bonds are commonly used to finance utility improvements and special facilities, such as baseball stadiums.
Describe Tax Increment Financing (TIF).
Allows a designated area to have tax revenue increases used for capital improvements in that area.All but one US state permit the use of TIF.
TIF supposed to be an area with substantial disinvestment. Designated area receives targeted investment and the increase in the value of property results in increased tax revenue. This increase is used to pay back the investment made in the area.
Describe Special Assessments financing.
Allows a particular group of people to assess the cost of a public improvement.
For example, in Columbus, Ohio, the City has a plan to have every street lit by 2020. Property owners are offered the option of having regular street lights for free or ornamental street lights at their expense. In the latter case, all of the property owners on the street are assessed a fee to pay for the ornamental street lights.
Describe Lease-Purchase financing.
Allows a government to “rent-to-own.” The government does not have to borrow money to finance the acquisition of a major capital improvement.
Name and describe the three types of taxes.
- Progressive: tax rate increases as income rises.
- Proportional: tax rate is same regardless of income.
- Regressive: tax rate decreases as income rises.
