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Summer Sem 1 Final Exam Prep > Physiology Final > Flashcards

Physiology Final Flashcards

1
Q

Mean arterial pressure

A

average BP in aorta (slightly less than average systolic and diastolic)

MAP= Cardiac Output x Peripheral Resistance

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2
Q

Cardiac output

A

amount of blood pumped by heart per min

CO = stroke volume x HR
SV: blood pumped during each heart beat

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3
Q

Peripheral resistance

A

total resistance against which blood must be pumped, determined by vasculature state (vasoconstrict vs vasodilate)

if PR increase, MAP increases, which means myocardium has to work harder

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4
Q

Heart regulation: Instrinsic regulation

A

results from normal functional characteristic, not on neural or hormonal regulation

  • Preload: Starling’s law of the heart…. amount of stretch of the ventricular walls. greater the stretch (preload), greater the force of contraction
  • Afterload: pressure the contracting ventricles must produce to overcome the pressure in the aorta and move blood into the aorta
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5
Q

Heart regulation: extrinsic regulation

A

Extrinsic regulation: involves neural and hormonal control

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6
Q

Parasympathetic stimulation

A

vagus nerve, decreases heart rate, acetylcholine is secreted and hyperpolarizes the heart

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7
Q

sympathetic stimulation

A
  • Cardiac nerves, innervate the SA and AV nodes, coronary vessels and the atrial & ventricular myocardium. increases heart rate and force of contraction. norepinephrine released
  • Increased HR = increased cardiac output
  • Increase in force of contraction = increase in stroke volume = increase in cardiac output
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8
Q

Hormonal control

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla. occurs in response to increase physical activity, emotional excitement, stress

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9
Q

Heart and homeostasis

Effect of bp:

A
  • baroreceptors monitor bp (sensory neurons)
  • found in internal carotid arteries and aorta
  • sensory info to centers in medulla oblongata
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10
Q

Heart and homeostasis

Effect of pH, Co2, O2

A
  • sensory neurons detect pH and CO2 in hypothalamus and medulla oblongata
  • chemoreceptors monitoring O2 in aorta and internal carotid arteries
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11
Q

Effect of extracellular ion concentration:

A

increase or decrease in extracellular K decreases heart rate

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12
Q

Effect of body temp:

A
  • HR increases when body temp increases, HR decreases when body temp decreases
  • reflects an increase in metabolic rate
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13
Q

Functions of the circulatory system

A
  1. Carry blood, acts as a transport medium
  2. Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases. supports metabolism, occurs between systems
  3. Transport of hormones, components of immune system, molecules required for coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases, waste products, etc.
  4. Regulate blood pressure, changing vessel diameter
  5. directs blood flow, redistribute blood flow
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14
Q

Structural Features of Blood Vessels

A

Arteries (oxygenated blood away from heart)

  • Elastic
  • Muscular
  • Arterioles

Capilaries
- Site of exchange with tissues

Veins (deoxygenated blood back to heart)

  • Thinner walls than arteries, contain less elastic tissue and fewer smooth muscles cells
  • Venules are continuous from capillaries
  • different sizes (small, medium, large veins)
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15
Q

Capillaries

A
  • Capillary wall consist of endothelial cells, which are continuous with endocardium
  • basement membrane, connective tissues

substances move through capillaries by diffusion:

  • Lipid-soluble and small water-soluble molecules through plasma membrane
  • large water-soluble molecules pass through fenestrae (gaps) between endothelial cells
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16
Q

Types of Capillaries

A

Capillary density

  • greater in high metabolic tissues such as:
  • lungs due to gas exchange
  • kidneys due to need to remove toxins & maintain fluid balance
  • cardiac muscle due to being highly aerobic
  • skeletal muscle due to being aerobic
  • Angiogenesis: good (response to exercise) & bad (cancer proliferation)
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17
Q

Types of arteries

A

Elastic or conducting arteries

  • largest diameters, high pressure
  • more elastic tissue than muscle
  • relatively thick tunica intima, thin tunica adventitia

Muscular arteries

  • smooth muscle allows vessels to regulate blood supply by constricting or dilating
  • most of the smaller unnamed arteries
  • thick walls due to 25-40 layers of smooth muscle

Smaller muscular arteries

  • Adapted for vasodilation and vasoconstriction
  • thinner layer of smooth muscle

Arterioles

  • Small arteries branch to capillaries
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18
Q

Types of veins

A

Venules

  • drains capillary network, some smooth muscle cells

Small veins

  • thin layer of smooth muscle cells (continuous layer)
  • tunica adventitia (connective tissue)

Large veins

  • thin tunica intima (endothelial cells, some elastic fibres)
  • thin tunica media
  • predominant tunica adventitia

Portal veins

  • 2 in-series capillary networks
  • hepatic portal veins: GI system and spleen to liver for nutrient transport
  • hypothalamohypophysial portal veins: hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland… transports releasing factor
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19
Q

Valves

A
  • valves found in all veins greater than 2mm in diameter
  • folds in intima that overlap
  • more valves in veins of lower extremities than in veins of upper extremities
  • function: prevent backflow of blood
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20
Q

Varicose veins

A
  • dysfunctional valves, mostly lower extremity, caused by overstretching veins
  • results in blood pools in veins
  • causes: pregnancy, defective valves
  • symptoms include swelling, pain, ulcers in ankles (severe case)
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21
Q

Neural Innervation of Blood Vessels

A
  • Unmyelinated sympathetic nerve fibers form plexi in tunica adventitia, leads to vasoconstriction which decreases blood flow
  • small arteries and arterioles innervated to greatest extent
  • vessels of reproductive system innervated by parasympathetic nervous system, leads to vasodilation which increases blood flow
  • some blood vessels innervated by myelinated fibers and act as baroreceptors that monitor stretch and detect changes in blood pressure (sensory neurons)

Viscosity: measure of resistance of liquid to flow

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22
Q

Endothelial function

A
  1. regulate vascular tone
  2. maintain vascular homeostasis
  3. allows diffusion of substances
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23
Q

eNOS

A

endothelial nitric oxide synthase

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24
Q

Endothelial dysfunction

A

Atherosclerosis

effects:

  • decreased bioavailability of nitric oxide
  • increased endothelial-derived contracting factors
  • pro-inflammatory and coagulation factors
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25
Q

Renal functions

A
  1. Excretion: filtration, re-absorption, secretion (formation of urine)
  2. Regulation of blood volume and pressure
  3. Regulation of blood solutes
  4. Regulation of extracellular fluid pH: excretion of protons
  5. Regulation of red blood cell synthesis: secretion of erythropoietin
  6. Regulation of vitamin D synthesis: regulates blood calcium
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26
Q

Renal capsule

A

fibrous connective tissue, surrounds each kidney

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27
Q

Renal fascia

A

thin layer of loose connective tissue, anchors kidneys and surrounding adipose to abdominal wall

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28
Q

Hilum

A

renal artery and nerves enter and renal vein and ureter exit kidneys. opens into renal sinus (cavity filled with fat and loose connective tissue)

29
Q

cortex

A

outer area, location of blood filtration

30
Q

Medulla

A

inner area, surrounds renal sinus

31
Q

renal pyramid

A

cone-shaped, base is boundary between cortex and medulla. apex of pyramid is renal papilla, points toward sinus

32
Q

Calyx minor

A

papillae extend into funnel of minor calyx

33
Q

Calyx major

A

converge to form pelvis

34
Q

renal pelvis

A

enlarged chamber formed by major calyces

35
Q

Ureter

A

exists at the hilum, connects to urinary bladder

36
Q

The Nephron

A
  • functional unit of the kidney
  • Bowman’s capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule (in order)
  • Urine moves to collecting ducts, papillary ducts, minor calyses, major calyses, and renal pelvis
  • Juxtamedullary nephrons: loops of Henle extend deep into the medulla, 15% of all nephrons
  • Cortical nephrons: loops of Henle do not extend deep into the medulla, ~85% of all nephrons
37
Q

Glomerulus

A

network of capillaries, blood enters through afferent arteriole, exists through efferent

38
Q

Juxtaglomerular apparatus function

A

site of renin production, involved in blood pressure regulation

39
Q

Diameter difference of afferent and efferent arterioles is due to _____ which increases _____, allows pressure to aid in the ______

A

blood flow backup, pressure, filtration process

40
Q

Fenestrae

A

window-like opening in endothelial cells of glomerular capillaries

41
Q

filtration slits

A

gaps between cell processes of podocytes

42
Q

filtration membrane

A

capillary endothelium basement membrane and podocytes, first stage of urine formation

43
Q

podocytes

A

epithelial cells, regulates filtration, “closes window”

44
Q

Review kidney blood flow schematics

A

:)

45
Q

Filtration

A

Definition: movement of fluid, derived from blood flowing through the glomerulus, across filtration membrane

46
Q

Filtrate

A

Filtrate: water, small molecules, ions that can pass through membrane

  • pressure difference forces filtrate across filtration membrane
47
Q

Renal fraction

A

part of total cardiac output that passes through the kidneys. Varies from 12-30%, average 21%

48
Q

Renal plasma flow rate:

A

renal blood flow rate x fraction of blood that is plasma

49
Q

Filtration Fraction

A

part of plasma that is filtered into lumen of Bowman’s capsule

50
Q

Filtration Membrane

A

Fluid “forces”

  • Glomerular capillary pressure (GCP): blood pressure inside capillary, pushes small molecules into Bowman’s capsule
  • Capsule hydrostatic pressure (CHP): pressure of filtration already in the lumen, works against filtration
  • Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP): osmotic pressure caused by blood proteins. favors fluid movement into the capillary from the lumen, works against filtration
51
Q

Regulation of GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate)

Autoregulation:

A
  • Changes in degree of constriction in afferent arterioles, myogenic response - stretch stimulate contraction
  • As system BP increases, afferent arterioles constrict and prevent increase in renal blood flow
52
Q

Sympathetic stimulation: norepinephrine

A
  • Constricts small arteries and afferent arterioles
  • decreases renal blood flow and filtration formation
  • ex. during intense exercise: intense sympathetic stimulation, rate of filtration formation decreases, redistributes blood flow to working tissues
53
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

Tubular reabsorption: occurs in proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting ducts

  • results because of:
    • diffusion
    • facilitated diffusion
    • active transport
    • symport
    • osmosis
    • substances transported to interstitial fluid and reabsorbed into peritubular capillaries: 99% of filtrate volume
    • returned to general circulation (venous system)
54
Q

Descending thin segment (Loop of Henle)

A
  • highly permable to water
  • moderately permeable to urea, sodium, most other ions (passive)
  • filtrate volume reduced by 15%
55
Q

Ascending thin segment (loop of henle)

A
  • not permeable to water

- permeable to solutes

56
Q

Urea

A
  • by-product of amino acid and ammonia metabolism
  • as volume of filtrate decrease, concentration of urea increases
  • nephron walls are not very permeable to urea, 40-60% passively reabsorbed
57
Q

Tubular Secretion

A
  • moves metabolic by-products, drugs, molecules not normally produced by the body into tubule of nephron (substances not normally filtered)
  • Active or passive
  • Ammonia: produced by epithelial cells of nephron from deamination of amino acids
  • H+, K+, penicillin, and substances such as para-aminohippuric acid (PAH): actively secreted into nephron.
    • -PAH, diagnostic agent to evaluate renal plasma flow rate
58
Q

Urine Production

Proximal convoluted tubules

A
  • Na+ and other substances removed (re-absorbed)
  • Water follow passively
  • Filtrate volume reduced
59
Q

Urine production

Descending limb of loop of Henle

A
  • Water exist passively (re-absorption), solutes enters (secretion)
  • Filtrate volume reduced 15%
  • RE-ABSORPTION
60
Q

Urine production

Ascending limb

A
  • Na+, Cl-, K+ transported out of filtrate (re-absorption)

- water remains (impermeable)

61
Q

Urine production

Distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts

A
  • water movement regulated by ADH
  • if absent, water not reabsorbed and dilute urine producted
  • if ADH present, water moves out, concentrated urine produced
62
Q

When large volume of water consumed

A
  • eliminate excess without losing large amounts of electrolytes
  • response is that kidneys produce large volume of dilute urine
63
Q

When drinking water not available

A
  • kidneys produced small volume of concentrate urine

- removes water and prevents rapid dehydration

64
Q

Mechanisms that create urine of variable concentration

A
  • Maintenance of high concentration of solute sin medulla
  • countercurrent functions of loops of Henle (CV vs nephron flows, opposite)
  • control of permeability of distal nephron to water (ADH)
65
Q

Atrial natriuretic hormone

A
  • Produced by right atrium of heat when blood volume increases stretching cells - reflects increased blood pressure
  • inhibits Na+ re-absoprtion
  • inhibits ADH production
  • increases volume of urine produced
  • venous return is lowered, volume in right atrium decreases
66
Q

Urine Movement

A
  • hydrostatic pressure forces urine through nephron
  • peristalsis moves urine through ureters from renal pelvis to urinary bladder. occur from once every few seconds to once every 2-3 mins
    • parasympathetic stimulation: increases frequency
    • sympathetic stimulation: decreases frequency
    Ureters enter bladder obliquely through trigone. pressure in bladder compresses ureter and prevents backflow
67
Q

Urinary bladder

A

hollow muscular organ. posterior to symphysis pubis, muscles part of wall is detrusor

68
Q

Trigone

A

interior urinary bladder. triangular area between the entry of the two ureters and the exist of the urethra

Summer Sem 1 Final Exam Prep (3 decks)

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