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Principles > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

define human physiology

A

study of the normal function of the human body and the mechanisms that control it

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2
Q

define homeostasis

A

stable internal environment

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3
Q

two classes of homeostatic control

A
  1. intrinsic

2. extrinsic

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4
Q

define feedforward

A

responses made in anticipation of a change

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5
Q

define feedback

A

responses made after the change has been detected

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6
Q

define positive feedback

A

amplifies the initial change

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7
Q

define negative feedback

A

opposes the initial change by shutting off the system

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8
Q

reasons the cell membrane is important

A

outer boundary (maintaining concentrations), selectively permeable, joins cells and responds to signals

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9
Q

two classes of membrane proteins

A
  1. integral

2. peripheral

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10
Q

functions of membrane proteins are

A
  • ligand-binding receptors
  • adhesion molecules
  • allows movement of water-soluble substances
  • enzymes
  • intracellular signalling
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11
Q

name of the layer of glycoproteins and glycolipids

A

glycocalyx

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12
Q

model to describe the cell membrane

A

fluid-mosaic model

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13
Q

two types of gradients that drive transport across the membrane

A
  • concentration gradient

- electrical gradient

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14
Q

Ficks law of diffusion takes into consideration

A
  1. magnitude of the concentration gradient
  2. SA
  3. lipid solubility
  4. molecular weight
  5. diffusion distance
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15
Q

define osmosis

A

net diffusion of water via a selectively permeable membrane. channels for water are called aquaporins

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16
Q

define osmolarity

A

concentration of osmotically active particles present in solution

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17
Q

define tonicity

A

effect of solution on cell volume

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18
Q

define hypotonic

A

increase in cell volume

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19
Q

define hypertonic

A

decrease in cell volume

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20
Q

define isotonic

A

equal volume/ no effect on cell size

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21
Q

mechanisms for selective transport are

A
  1. carrier-mediated transport

2. vesicular transport

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22
Q

describe carrier-mediated transport

A

substances bind to specific carriers causing them to undergo conformational changes

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23
Q

the molecules that bind must have three characteristics to cause conformational change

A
  • specificity
  • saturation
  • competition
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24
Q

two forms of carrier-mediated transport

A
  1. facilitated diffusion

2. active transport

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25
Q

two forms of active transport

A
  1. primary: direct energy

2. secondary: second-hand ATP

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26
Q

define symport

A

same direction

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27
Q

define antiport

A

different directions

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28
Q

define blood pressure

A

outward (hydrostatic) pressure exerted by the blood on the vessel walls.

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29
Q

define systemic systolic arterial blood pressure

A

pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the aorta and systemic arteries when the heart contracts (<140mmHg)

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30
Q

define systemic diastolic arterial blood pressure

A

pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the aorta and systemic arteries when the heart relaxes (<90mmHg)

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31
Q

define hypertension

A

blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg

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32
Q

define pulse pressure

A

difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures

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33
Q

define mean arterial blood pressure

A

average arterial blood pressure during a single cardiac cycle. diastole is twice as long as systole

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34
Q

receptors that detect stretch/ pressure

A

baroreceptors

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35
Q

control centre of the baroreceptor reflex

A

medulla

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36
Q

effectors of the baroreceptor reflex

A

heart and blood vessels

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37
Q

location of the baroreceptors

A

carotid arteries and aorta

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38
Q

what happens in the medulla during the baroreceptor reflex

A

medulla receives CVS afferent information. the nucleus tracts solitarius (NTS) relays information to other areas of the brain. this generates vagal outflow (parasympathetic)

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39
Q

mean arterial blood pressure can be regulated by

A
  • heart rate
  • stroke volume
  • systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
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40
Q

define autorhythmicity

A

heart is capable of beating rhythmically in the absence of external stimuli.

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41
Q

two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

A
  1. sympathetic (speeds up the heart)

2. parasympathetic (slows the heart- vagus nerve)

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42
Q

define stroke volume

A

volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle

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43
Q

how is stroke volume regulated?

A

sympathetic nerves supply the ventricular myocardium and increase force of contraction. parasympathetic has little effect.

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44
Q

how is systemic vascular resistance regulated

A

vascular smooth muscles constrict and dilate

45
Q

define vasomotor tone

A

tonic (continuous) discharge of sympathetic nerves resulting in continuous release of noradrenaline

46
Q

increased sympathetic discharge causes?

A

increased vasomotor tone which leads to vasoconstriction

47
Q

decreased sympathetic discharge causes?

A

vasodilation by decreasing vasomotor tone (there is no parasympathetic intervention)

48
Q

baroreceptors can re-set blood pressure if?

A

a new blood pressure is maintained.

49
Q

commonly assessed vital signs

A

pulse, temperature, blood pressure, respiratory rate, capillary refill time, oxygen saturation and consciousness

50
Q

define core body temperature

A

temperature of structures deep within the body. the outer shell consists of skin and subcutaneous tissue.

51
Q

average core body temperature

A

37.8 degrees

52
Q

sites for monitoring body temperature are

A

ear drum, recut, oral

53
Q

internal heat gain

A

oxidation of food, BMR, muscle activity, shivering and brown fat

54
Q

external heat exchange

A
  1. radiation: absorbing and emitting radiation
  2. conduction: transfer of heat between objects in contact
  3. convection: transfer by air or water currents
  4. evaporation: conversion of water into vapour
55
Q

sensors for body temperature

A

thermoreceptors

56
Q

location of thermoreceptors

A

hypothalamus, abdominal organs, skin

57
Q

control centre for core body temperature

A

hypothalamus

58
Q

effectors for core body temperature

A

skeletal muscles, skin arterioles and sweat glands

59
Q

two centres of the hypothalamus

A
  1. posterior- activated by cold

2. anterior- activated by warmth

60
Q

how is fever produced?

A

macrophages are stimulated by the infection. they act as endogenous pyrogens (cytokines) and stimulate the release of prostaglandins. this increases the body temperature (fever)

61
Q

define hyperthermia

A

elevation of body temperature (above 40 degrees)

62
Q

define hypothermia

A

reduction in body temperature (below 35 degrees)

63
Q

define membrane potential

A

separation of opposite charges across the membrane on immediate sides of the membrane

64
Q

is the membrane itself charged

A

no

65
Q

concentration gradient across the membrane of K+

A

movement outwards

66
Q

concentration gradient across the membrane of Na+

A

movement inwards

67
Q

at rest what ion is the membrane more permeable to?

A

K+

68
Q

at rest what is the membrane impermeable to?

A

large, negatively charged (anionic) intracellular proteins (A-)

69
Q

resting membrane potential

A

-70mV

70
Q

what can the nerst equation be used for?

A

calculate equilibrium potential of a given ion

71
Q

equilibrium potential of Na+

A

+60mV

72
Q

what can the GHK equation be used for?

A

calculates Em (membrane potential)

73
Q

function of the Na+/K+ pump

A

3Na+ and 2K+

74
Q

potassium equilibrium potential

A

-90mV

75
Q

what does the magnitude of the potential depend on?

A

number of charges that are separated

76
Q

define depolarisation

A

membrane potential becomes less negative

77
Q

define hyperpolarisation

A

membrane potential becomes more negative

78
Q

the driving force for Na+ influx

A

Vm - ENa (membrane potential - equilibrium potential for Na+)

79
Q

define the ‘all-or-nothing’ principle

A

the action potential must be above the threshold value

80
Q

define an action potential

A

momentary reversal of charge across the membrane

81
Q

activation of Na+ channels causes?

A

an influx of Na+ which stimulates more channels to open

82
Q

define the absolute refractory period

A

no stimulus, no matter how strong can elicit a second action potential

83
Q

define the relative refractory period

A

a stronger stimulus than normal is required to elicit a second action potential

84
Q

problem with passive signals

A

cell membrane is leaky so the signals do not spread far from the site of origin

85
Q

factors that affect the speed of nerve impulses

A
  • axon diameter
  • leakiness
  • myelin sheath
86
Q

define saltatory conduction

A

action potentail jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next

87
Q

define the autonomic nervous system

A

transports efferent impulses to tissues other than striated muscle

88
Q

three subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system

A
  1. enteric (GI tract)
  2. sympathetic division
  3. parasympathetic division
89
Q

functions of the ANS

A
  • regulates activities not requiring conscious effort

- training allows some degree of control

90
Q

neurotransmitters in the sympathetic motor ANS

A

preganglionic neurone it is acetylcholine and postganglionic neurone it is noradrenaline

91
Q

two divisions of the motor ANS

A
  1. sympathetic

2. parasympathetic

92
Q

neurotransmitters in the parasympathetic motor ANS

A

acetylcholine

93
Q

location of synapses in the sympathetic ANS

A
  1. paravertebral ganglia

2. prevertebral ganglia

94
Q

location of synapses in the parasympathetic ANS

A

terminal ganglia

95
Q

name of myelinated preganglionic fibres

A

motor B-fibres

96
Q

name of unmyelinated postganglionic fibres

A

motor C-fibres

97
Q

describe sympathetic outflow

A

thoracolumbar outflow T1-L2

98
Q

describe parasympathetic outflow

A

cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X and sacral spinal nerves S2-S4

99
Q

examples of rapid neurotransmitters

A

ACh and ATP

100
Q

examples of intermediate speed transmitters

A

NO and NA

101
Q

examples of slow neurotransmitters

A

VIP and NP-gamma

102
Q

which type of channels are nicotinic ACh receptors

A

ligand-gated ion channels

103
Q

which type of channel are muscarinic ACh receptors

A

G-protein-coupled receptors

104
Q

clinically important receptors for sympathetic stimulation are?

A

beta-1 (heart rate increase)

beta-2 (relaxation of bronchi)

105
Q

clinically important receptors for parasympathetic stimulation are?

A

M2 (decrease heart rate)

M3 ( constricts bronchi)

106
Q

three ways blockage of cholinergic transmission may be achieved

A
  1. depolarisation
  2. competitive antagonism
  3. non-competitive antagonism
107
Q

which substance can block all ganglionic transmission?

A

hexamethonium

108
Q

the effects of cocaine on the ANS

A

increases NA causing vasoconstriction

109
Q

effects of amphetamine on ANS

A

displaces NA into the cytoplasm which increases adrenoceptor stimulation

Principles (11 decks)

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