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Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Continuous

A
  • Uses aerobic respiration
  • Works below lactate threshold
  • Involves completing a continuous skill for more than 20 minutes
  • E.g. swimming/rowing/running/cycling
  • The performer aims to reach a steady state, where by enough oxygen is delivered to the working muscle to respire aerobically
  • This aims to improve the performer’s cardiorespiratory endurance/stamina
  • The performer should work between 65-75% of maximum heart rate
  • E.g. A 20 year old athlete will work between 130bpm-150bpm for more than 20 minutes.
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2
Q

Interval/HIIT

A
  • Involves alternating between periods of high intensity exercise and short periods of rest
  • E.g. 30 seconds of burpees followed by 30 seconds of rest
  • During the working periods, the performer will work at high intensities, using the lactate anaerobic system.
  • The performer will work above their lactate threshold
  • During rest periods, the performer will respire aerobically to remove lactic acid via oxidation
  • The aim is to improve cardiovascular endurance/stamina
  • The performer should work between 75-85% of maximum heart rate
  • E.g. a 20 year old athlete would work between 150-170bpm.
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3
Q

Fartlek

A
  • Swedish for speed play
  • Continuous style of training that involves alternating intensity and terrain for a minimum of 30 minutes
  • E.g. The performer may jog for 100m on a flat surface, sprint for 10m uphill and walk for 20m downhill
  • During high intensity periods, the performer uses the lactate anaerobic system and works above the lactate threshold
  • During low intensity periods, the performer uses aerobic respiration and is able to remove lactic acid via oxidation
  • Aims to improves cardiovascular endurance/stamina
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4
Q

Weight

A
  • Involves the use of sets and reps
  • The performer can use free weights or resistance machines
  • To improve muscular strength, the performer would use low reps (less than 6) and a high weight
  • To improve muscular endurance, the performer would use high reps (more than 12) and a lighter weight.
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5
Q

Circuit

A
  • Involves the performer moving between different stations completing different exercises
  • Allows the performer to train a specific component of fitness
  • E.g. to improve flexibility, the performer would complete a stretching circuit
  • The intensity can be varied by changing the rest periods or the amount of time spent at each station
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6
Q

Plyometric: General

A
  • Involves hopping, jumping and bounding
  • Leads to hypertrophy of type 2b muscle fibres
  • Which causes an increase in power
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7
Q

Plyometric: Process

A
  • The performer completes a rapid eccentric contraction
  • This is detected by muscle spindles
  • Muscle spindles are a protective mechanism designed to prevent overstretching
  • Muscle spindles send a nerve impulse to the central nervous system (CNS)
  • The central nervous system activate a stretch reflex, which forces the muscle to store elastic energy
  • This allows the muscle to perform a rapid concentric contraction
  • E.g. Squatting down, followed by jumping as high as possible.
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8
Q

Plyometric: Advantages

A

Anaerobic Adaptations:
* Hypertrophy of fast twutch type2b muscle fibres
* Increased recruitment of motor units
* High PC Stores
* Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density

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9
Q

Plyometric: Disadvantages

A
  • Rapid eccentric contractions may cause muscle fibres to tear/ DOMS
  • Only develops power, performer must use other methods of training to improve other components of fitness
  • e.g. games player may also use fartlek to develop CV endurance
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10
Q

PNF: General

A

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Flexibility
also known as Mobility Training
aim to improve flexibility

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11
Q

PNF: Process

A
  • The muscle is firtsly taken to its end range of movement
  • This change in length, is detected by the muscle spindles (protective mechanism designed to prevent overstretching)
  • The muscle spindle sends a message to the CNS, attempts to activate sretch reflex
  • However, performer hold isometric muscles contraction for 10s, activating golgi tendon organ
  • Overrides muscle spindles which allows muscle to relax
  • Muscle able to strech further
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12
Q

PNF: Advnatages

A
  • Increase performer’s range of movement about their joints, increasing flexibility
  • e.g. beneficial for gymnast can reach more asethically pleasing positions
  • e.g. good for goalkeeper to make more acrobatic saves
  • Increased range of movement can also reduce injury
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13
Q

PNF: Disadvantages

A
  • If not completed by professional could cause injury, performer unable to train, causing reversibility
  • Only develops flexibility, gymanst would also need power so use plyometric training
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14
Q

Dynamic Stretching

A

Involves the performer stretching through a sport specific movement.

E.g. Leg swings to replicate kicking a ball.

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15
Q

Ballistic Stretching

A

Involves the performer bouncing in and out of a stretch.

Usually only used by professional athletes as it may cause injuries

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16
Q

Benefits of dynamic & ballistic stretching

A

Increase cardiac output – increase O2 delivery – aerobic respiration at start of performance – less LA build up

Increase muscle temperature – increase synovial fluid – increase flexibility – reduce injury

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17
Q

Calculating Working Intensities

A

Heart Rate Training Zone
BORG RPE Scale
RPE Scale

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18
Q

Heart Rate Training Zone

A
  • Performer calculates their maximum heart rate
  • Using 220 – age
  • To improve cardiovascular endurance/stamina, the performer would work between 60-80% of maximum heart rate
  • E.g. a 20 year old athlete would work between 120bpm-160bpm to improve stamina
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19
Q

BORG RPE Scale

A
  • The performer may use the Borg RPE Scale
  • Which measures rate of perceived exertion
  • The scale runs from 6 (no exertion) to 20 (maximal exertion)
  • However, the Borg RPE scale is subjective because it measures how hard the performer thinks they are working
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20
Q

RPE Scale

A
  • Generally used for weight training
  • Measures the rate of perceived exertion
  • Measured from 1 (no exertion) to 10 (maximal exertion – no more reps can be completed)
  • However, the RPE scale is subjective because it measures how hard the performer thinks they are working
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21
Q

Altitude: General

A

Altitude training takes place 2000m above sea level

The performer must train at altitude for at least 30 days

There is a low PO2 at altitude

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22
Q

Altitude: Advantages

A
  • Being at altitude stimulates the hormone EPO, increases the performer’s red blood cell production
  • There is also an increase in haemoglobin content
  • Both these adaptations improve the performer’s capacity to carry O2 to the working muscles
  • Increased capillarisation, which increases surface for diffusion of gases at the working muscle
  • Increased myoglobin, allowing the performer to extract more O2 from the blood stream
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23
Q

Altitude: Disadvantages

A
  • Training at altitude may cause altitude sickness (hypoxia) which may mean the performer cannot train
  • This may cause reversibility leading to lower fitness levels
  • Benefits of altitude training only last 30 days
  • Alternative may be for the performer to use a hypoxic apartments/tents.
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24
Q

heart rate

A

the amount of times the heart beats per min

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25
Q

stroke volume

A

the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per beat

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26
Q

cardiac output

A

the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute

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27
Q

relationship between heart rate, cardiac ouput & stroke volume

A

cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

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28
Q

Explain how training affects cardiac output and its components

A

Trained performer has
- cardiac hypertrophy (heart bigger & stronger)
- higher stroke volume (more blood left ventricle per beat)
- lower resting heart rate
- increased maximum cardiac ouput (more blood left vent pm)
- bradycardia (resting heart rate >60bpm)
- improved ejection fraction (proportion blood out left vent pb)

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29
Q

Explain how it is possible for trained & untrained performer to have same cardiac output at a given intensity

A
  • cardiac output = blood pumped out of left vent pm
  • cardiac ouput = stroke volume x heart rate
  • trained performer cardiac hypertophy so …
  • during exercise lower resting heart rate & higher stroke volume
  • untrained performer - higher heart rate & lower stroke volume
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30
Q

Andy and Tom are 24 years old. Tom is a cross country runner who trains 3 times a week. Andy is a tank but has been injured for 6 months; he has not trained for 6 months.

How would maximal cardiac output differ between Andy & Tom? Justify your answer.

A

Tom has bigger heart cardiac hypertophy training
Tom increased stroke volume & lower resting heart rate
Andy greater resting heart rate & lower stroke volume
Same maximum heart rate same age
Tom higher maximal cardiac output than Andy

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31
Q

Explain how a lower resting heart rate affects oxygen delivery to the muscles

A

The heart uses less oxygen for respiration
More oxygen delivered to working muscles
Use aerobic respiration for longer
Remove more lactic acid

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32
Q

Conduction of the heart

A

1)Sino Atrio Node (SAN) heart’s pacemaker & sends out electrical impulse
2)Causes atria to contract, forcing blood into ventricles
3)Atro ventricular node (AVN) sends 2nd nerve impulse
4)Travels down bundle of his, delaying impulse for 0.1 seconds, allowing atria to empty all of blood
5)Impulse then travels down Purkinje fibres, causes atria to contract, forcing blood out of heart

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33
Q

Diastolic Phase

A
  • During the diastolic phase, the atria passively fill with blood
  • During ventricular diastole, the ventricles passively fill with blood, due to an increase in pressure in the atria
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34
Q

Systolic Phase

A
  • During atria systole, the increased pressure in atria forces blood into the ventricle
  • During ventricular systole, there is an increased pressure in the ventricles which forces the blood (aorta) to the body and lungs (pulmonary artery)
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35
Q

venous return

A

return of blood to heart

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36
Q

Mechanisms of Venous Return

A

Muscle Pump
Respiratory Pump
One-way valve

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37
Q

Muscle Pump

A

The muscles contract, which squeezes the veins and forces blood back to the heart

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38
Q

Respiratory Pump

A

The chest size increases, which squeezes the veins and forces blood back to the heart

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39
Q

One-way valve

A

veins contain one-way valves that prevent the backflow of blood

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40
Q

Starling’s Law

A

1)During exercise, there are greater levels of venous return
2)Therefore, a greater amount of blood fills the heart
3)Therefore, there is a greater stretch of the heart walls
4)Therefore, there is a greater force of contraction
5)Therefore, there is a greater levels of stroke volume
6)This means there is a greater amount of oxygen available for the working muscles, so the performer can use aerobic respiration for longer

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41
Q

Explain how an increase in venous return affects cardiac output

A

1)During exercise, there are greater levels of venous return
2)Therefore, a greater amount of blood fills the heart
3)Therefore, there is a greater stretch of the heart walls
4)Therefore, there is a greater force of contraction
5)Therefore, there is a greater levels of stroke volume
6)This means there is a greater amount of oxygen available for the working muscles, so the performer can use aerobic respiration for longer

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42
Q

Role of Receptors

A

Chemoreceptor- detect changes in blood acidity, caused by CO2
Proprioceptor - detect changes in muscular contraction
Baroreceptor - detect changes in Blood pressure
Thermoreceptor - detect changes in body temperature

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43
Q

Describe the role of different receptors and how they cause an increase in heart rate

A
  • Chemoreceptors detect an increase in blood acidity
  • Proprioceptors detect an increase in muscular contractions
  • Thermoreceptors detect an increase in body temperature
  • Baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure
  • All 4 receptors then send nerve impulses to the cardiac control centre (CCC) in the medulla
  • The CCC then sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses down the acceleratory nerve to the SAN
  • This causes heart rate to increase
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44
Q

Describe the role of different receptors and how they cause a decrease in heart rate

A

State that all receptors detect a DECREASE
* All 4 receptors send a nerve impulse to the CCC in the medulla
* The CCC then sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses down the inhibitory nerve to the SAN
* This causes a decrease in heart rate

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45
Q

Explain how neural control helps to regulate cardiac output during exercise

A
  • All 4 receptors detect a change
  • All 4 receptors send a nerve impulse to the CCC in the medulla
  • If the receptors detect an increase, then the CCC will send an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses down the acceleratory nerve, to the SAN
  • This causes an increase in heart rate
  • However, if the receptors detect a decrease, then the CCC sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses down the inhibitory nerve, to the SAN
  • This causes a decrease in heart rate
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46
Q

Health

A

A state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing in the absence of disease or illness

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47
Q

Fitness

A

The ability to cope with the demands of the environment

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48
Q

Exercise

A

An activity that requires physical or mental exertion and is performed to improve or maintain fitness

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49
Q

Sedentary

A

Sitting down or being physically inactive for long periods of time

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50
Q

Social Benefits

A

· Make new friends

· Less likely to require medical care, reducing strain on NHS

· More likely to spend leisure time effectively e.g. joining a sports club. Reduces the strain on police & reduces the likelihood of crime

· Healthy individuals make productive lifestyle choices e.g. not smoking

. Healthy individuals less likely to require time off work, improves productivity & benefits the economy

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51
Q

Physiological Benefits

A

Continuous/HIIT Training
· Improves cardiovascular endurance
· Reduces risk of obesity
· Reducing risk of type 2 diabetes & heart disease

PNF
· Improvement in flexibility
· Improved posture & body shape
· Reducing risk of arthritis

Weight Training
· Improved strength
· Increased bone density
. Reduces risk of osteoporosis

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52
Q

Psychological Benefits

A

Allows release of endorphins, improves individual’s mood state

Exercise can be used to release stress (catharsis)

Exercise allows a performer to focus more clearly on a task

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53
Q

ATP Splitting

A

· ATP is broken down by ATPase

· To form ADP + P + Energy

· The energy is then used for muscular contractions

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54
Q

ATP-PC System

A

· Creatine kinase detects high levels of ADP
· And breaks down PC into P + C + Energy
· The energy is then used to resynthesise ATP

· The ATP can then be broken down and used for muscular contractions

· The ATP-PC system lasts for 8 seconds.

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55
Q

ATP-PC Advantages

A

· Allows for the rapid resynthesis of ATP through the break down of PC

· This allows the performer to work at a high intensity

· And complete multiple ballistic skills e.g. explosively pushing off the blocks, followed by a sprint to the finish line in the 100m

.Without the build up of lactic acid

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56
Q

ATP-PC Disadvantages

A

· The performer only has a limited store of PC

· Therefore, the system can only be used for 8 seconds

.Full recovery of the PC system takes 3 minutes

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57
Q

Lactate Anaerobic System

A

· Glycogen is broken down into glucose

· This produces enough energy to resynthesise 2 ATP

· Glucose is broken down into pyruvate

· This is known as glycolysis

· Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid

· The lactate anaerobic system lasts for 3 minutes

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58
Q

Lactate Anaerobic Advantages

A

· Provides a rapid release of energy

· Lasts for 3 minutes

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59
Q

Lactate Anaerobic Disadvantages

A

· Causes a build up lactic acid

· Which can denature enzymes and cause fatigue

. Therefore, the performer may slow down towards the end of the race

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60
Q

Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis

A

· Glycogen is broken down into glucose
· Enough energy is produced to resynthesise 2 ATP
· Glucose is broken down into pyruvate.

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61
Q

Aerobic Respiration: Krebs cycle

A

· Pyruvate is oxidised to form acetyl-coA, which enters the Krebs Cycle
· Acetyl-coA is converted into oxaloacetic acid
· Oxaloacetic acid combines with co-enzymeA to form citric acid
· Enough energy is produced to resynthesise 2 ATP

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62
Q

Aerobic Respiration: Electron Transport Chain

A

· Hydrogen is produced and transported to the electron transport chain
· This produces 34 ATP and H2O

· Fats are then broken down into fatty acids
· Fatty acids are oxidised to form Acetyl-coA, which enters the Krebs Cycle - Beta Oxidation

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63
Q

Aerobic Respiration Advantages

A

· Fats yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates

· This allows 34-38 ATP to be produced via aerobic respiration

.Therefore, when using aerobic respiration, the performer is able to remove lactic acid via oxidation

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64
Q

Aerobic Respiration Disadvantages

A

· Aerobic respiration is only useful when oxygen is present
· As oxygen is required to oxidise pyruvate and to break down fats

· Slower release of energy than other 2 systems
· Cannot resynthesise ATP quickly - aerobic respiration can only be used for low intensity exercise

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65
Q

Energy Sources

A

ATP
PC
Carbohydrates/Glycogen/Glucose
Fats
Protein
Lactic Acid

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66
Q

Energy Systems

A

ATP-PC
Lactate Anaerobic
Aerobic Respiration

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67
Q

How long does ATP-PC last for?

A

8 seconds

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68
Q

How long does Lactate Anaerobic last for?

A

8 seconds - 3 minutes

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69
Q

How long does Aerobic Respiration last for?

A

3 minutes +

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70
Q

Applied Question:
Outline and explain the relationship between energy sources and intensity of exercise

A

Low intensities
50% of energy from fats
50% of energy from carbohydrates
Enough oxygen available in muscle to oxidise pyruvate & fatty acids into acetyl-CoA

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71
Q

Aerobic Adaptations

A

cardiac hypertrophy

increase percentage of alveloi used

increased myoglobin content

increased mitochondrial density

high stores of triglycerides

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72
Q

Cardiac hypertrophy

A

aerobic exercise, cardiac hypertrophy, heart gets bigger and stronger

increased stroke volume blood pumped left venticle per beat

increased cardiac output

increases capacity to transport oxygen to muscles

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73
Q

Increased percentage of alveoli used

A

more sites for diffusion in lungs

rate of diffusion from alveoli to capillary increases

increases capacity to transport oxygen to muscle

remove lactic acid via oxidation

lactate threshold & OBLA reached later

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74
Q

Increased myoglobin content

A

myoglobin extracts oxygen from bloodstream into muscle

rate of diffusion of oxygen increases

resynthesise ATP aerobically

if didn’t have high myoglobin resynthesise ATP anaerobically, lactic acid build up, fatigue

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75
Q

Increased mitochondrial density

A

produce more ATP per oxygen molecule through aerobic respiration

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76
Q

High stores of triglycerides

A

can be broken down into fatty acids & used as energy source for aerobic respiration

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77
Q

Anaerobic Adaptations

A

Hypertrophy of fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres
Increased recruitment of motor units
High PC stores
Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density

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78
Q

Hypertrophy of fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres

A

muscle fibres become thicker
increased force of contraction
power increases

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79
Q

Increased recruitment of motor units

A

Increased ability to contract/control more muscle fibres
Increases overall force of contraction of muscle
Increase in power

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80
Q

High PC stores

A

use ATP-PC system for longer
work at high intensities for longer
able to complete multiple ballistic skills e.g. explosive push of blocks sprint to finish in 100m
without build up of lactic acid

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81
Q

Increased strength of tendons, ligaments & bone density

A

Less likely to be injured

82
Q

VO2 Max

A

the maximum amount of oxygen that can be utilised by the body per min

83
Q

Lactate Threshold

A

the point at which more lactic acid is being produced than removed

84
Q

OBLA

A

Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation:
the point at which lactic acid enters enters the bloodstream and fatigue sets in

85
Q

Outline the relationship between VO2 Max & Lactate Threshold

A

Define VO2 Max
Define Lactate Threshold
Lactate Threshold % of VO2 Max
As VO2 Max increases, lactate threshold increases
Trained performer will reach lactate threshold & OBLA later than untrained performer
Because they have increased capacity to transport oxygen
Use aerobic respiration to resynthesise ATP & remove lactic acid via oxdiation quickly

86
Q

Type 1 Muscle Fibres

A

a high proportion required for aerobic & endurance sport

slow speed of contraction, low force of contraction

87
Q

Type 1 Muscle Fibres Adaptations

A

High capillary density
Increases number of sites available for diffusion
High myoglobin content
High mitochondria levels
High levels of oxidative enzymes
High levels of triglyceride

88
Q

High capillary density

A

Increases number of sites available for diffusion

89
Q

High myoglobin content

A

Allows the muscle to extract increased amount of oxygen from bloodstream

90
Q

High mitochondria levels

A

Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria, more sites available

91
Q

High levels of oxidative enzymes

A

Allows rate of aerobic respiration to increase & allows removal of lactic acid to speed up

92
Q

High levels of triglyceride

A

Can be used to produce fatty acids for energy production

93
Q

Type 2b Muscle Fibres

A

a high proportion required for anaerobic & explosive sports

fast speed of contraction, high force of contraction

94
Q

Type 2b Muscle Fibres Adaptations

A

High stores of PC
High stores of glycogen
High levels of anaerobic enzymes e.g. ATPase, Creatine Kinase
Large motor neurons

95
Q

High stores of PC

A

Allows performer to use ATP-PC system for longer

96
Q

High stores of glycogen

A

Can be used as an energy source for lactate anaerobic energy system

97
Q

High levels of anaerobic enzymes e.g. ATPase, Creatine Kinase

A

Allows for breakdown of anaerobic energy sources e.g. ATP & PC

98
Q

Large motor neurons

A

Allows for contraction of more muscle fibres per nerve impulse, increases force of contraction

99
Q

Explain how redistribution of blood occurs during exercise

A

State that all 4 receptors detect an increase
* All four receptors send nerve impulses to the vaso-motor control centre (VMCC), in the medulla

  • During exercise, the VMCC sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the pre-capillary sphincters at the working muscles.
  • This causes the blood vessels to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow
  • This means that more oxygen is available to the working muscles, so the performer can respire aerobically.
  • At the same time, the vaso-motor control centre sends a decreased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the pre-capillary sphincters at the digestive system
  • This causes the blood vessels to vaso-constrict, reducing blood flow
  • This means that more oxygen is available to the working muscles
100
Q

Why should a performer not eat within an hour of performance?

A
  • The digestive system requires oxygen to digest food
  • Therefore, the pre-capillary sphincters at the digestive system would vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow.
  • This means that less blood, and therefore oxygen, is available for the working muscles
  • Therefore, the performer cannot resynthesise ATP via aerobic respiration
  • This means the performer must use anaerobic respiration to regenerate ATP.
  • Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid, which causes fatigue.
  • This means that the performer cannot perform at high intensities for long periods.
101
Q

Explain what happens to blood flow to the brain during exercise

A

During exercise, blood flow to the brain stays the same
This is because the brain is always active
Therefore, the brain always require oxygen

102
Q

Explain what happens to the blood flow to the skin during exercise?

A

Thermoreceptors detect an increase in body temperature
During exercise, the pre-capillary sphincters at the skin vaso-dilate, causing an increased blood flow
This directs blood away from the core and towards the skin
This can decrease body temperature through radiation and sweating

103
Q

Explain what happens to the blood flow to the heart during exercise

A

During exercise, blood flow to the heart increases
This is because the heart is working harder
Therefore, the heart require more oxygen for respiration

104
Q

Sympathetic

A

prepare body for exercise

Heart
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during exercise to increase heart rate
- causes increase in cardiac output & allows more oxygen to be transported

Breathing
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during exercise
- increases minute ventilation, allowing them to diffuse oxygen into capillaries at greater rate

Blood vessels:
- increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow to muscles

105
Q

Sympathetic - heart

A
  • increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during exercise to increase heart rate
  • causes increase in cardiac output & allows more oxygen to be transported
106
Q

Sympathetic - breathing

A
  • increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during exercise
  • increases minute ventilation, allowing them to diffuse oxygen into capillaries at greater rate
107
Q

Sympathetic - blood vessels

A
  • increased number of sympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
  • causing them to vaso-dilate, increasing blood flow to muscles
108
Q

Parasympathetic

A

prepare body for recovery

Heart
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during recovery to decrease heart rate

Breathing
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during recovery
-causing breathing rate to decrease

Blood vessels:
- increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
- causing them to vaso-constrict, decreasing blood flow to muscles

109
Q

Parasympathetic - heart

A
  • increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to SAN during recovery to decrease heart rate
110
Q

Parasympathetic - breathing

A
  • increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to diaphragm & intercostal muscles during recovery
    -causing breathing rate to decrease
111
Q

Parasympathetic - blood vessels

A
  • increased number of parasympathetic nerve impulses are sent to pre capillary sphincters at working muscles
  • causing them to vaso-constrict, decreasing blood flow to muscles
112
Q

Lung Volumes

A

tidal volume
inspiratory reserve volume
expiratory reserve volume
residual volume
vital capacity
total lung capacity

113
Q

tidal volume

A

the amount of air inspired and expired per breath

114
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

the maximum amount of air that can be breathed in

115
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

the maximum amount of air that can be breathed ou

116
Q

residual volume

A

the amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation

117
Q

vital capacity

A

the maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after maximal inhalation

118
Q

total lung capacity

A

the maximum amount of air that can be stored in the lungs
(IRV + ERV + RV)

119
Q

Explain how tidal volume & IRV may change during exercise

A

Tidal volume increases during exercise
This means that the peaks will be higher & more frequent/closer together
This represents deeper & faster breathing

Inspiratory reserve volume decreases during exercise
This is caused by an increase in tidal volume

120
Q

Outline the effect of a continuous period of running on tidal volume

A

Tidal volume increses during exercise
This means that the peaks will be higher & more frequent/closer together
This represents deeper and faster breathing

121
Q

Identify which 3 lung volumes are used within exercise

A

ERV, IRV, TV

122
Q

Whilst running, a performer will experience changes in lung volumes. How will each of the volumes change during exercise?

A

BR - Increases
TV - Increases
IRV - Decreases
ERV - Decreases
VC - No change

123
Q

tidal volume

A

amount of air breathed in and out per breath

124
Q

respiratory frequency

A

number of breaths taken per minute

125
Q

minute ventilation

A

amount of air breathed in and out per minute

126
Q

relationship between tidal volume, minute ventilation & respiratory frequency

A

minute ventilation = tidal volume x respiratory frequency

127
Q

anticipatory rise

A

increase in heart rate
prior to exercise
caused by release of adrenaline

128
Q

steady state

A

steady state will always be a plateau
when performer is providing sufficient oxygen to the working muscle to be able to resynthesise ATP aerobically

129
Q

Explain what would happen to the graph for a performer working at a higher intensity than shown. Justify your answer.

A

During high intensity exercise, steady state is reached later because the performer needs to resynthesise ATP quicker

Therefore performer uses anaerobic respiration, as it resynthesises ATP quicker than aerobic respiration

Recovery takes longer, as the performer has built up higher levels of lactic acid

130
Q

Explain what would happen to the graph for a performer who is working at the same intensity as shown but who has undertaken several months of endurance training. Justify your answer.

A
  • Trained performer has undergone cardac hypertrophy
  • Performer is able to transport oxygen around the body more efficiently
  • Steady state is reached sooner, as the performer is able to resynthesise ATP aerobically
  • Recovery is quicker because the performer has built up less lactic acid, performer can also use oxidation to remove lactic acid quicker
131
Q

Explain how a cyclists’ increase in minute ventilation allows them to maintain performance throughout the race

A
  • Minute ventilation is amount of air breathed in & out per min
  • If MV increases, breathe in more oxygen
  • More oxygen will diffuse from alveoli to capillary
  • Performer has greater capacity to transport oxygen to muscle, resynthesise ATP aerobically
  • Produce less lactic acid, maintain level of performance
132
Q

How oxygen & carbon dioxide move between alveolus & blood capillary

A

Oxygen
- High PO2 in alveoli & Low PO2 in blood capillary
- Oxygen diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, oxygen diffuses from alveoli to capillary

Carbon dioxide
- High PCO2 in blood capillary & Low PCO2 in alveoli
- Carbon dixode diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from capillary to alveoli

133
Q

How oxygen & carbon dioxide move between blood capillary & muscles

A

Oxygen
- High PO2 in blood capillary & Low PO2 in muscle
- Oxygen diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, oxygen diffuses from capillaries to muscles

Carbon dioxide
- High PCO2 in muscle & Low PCO2 in capillaries
- Carbon dixode diffuses from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
- Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from muscles to capillaries

134
Q

Outline the functions of myoglobin

A

Found in muscles
Stores oxygen
Has an affinity for oxygen

135
Q

State and explain the effects of exercise on gaseous exchange in the lungs

A

Oxygen
- less oxygen is exhaled during exercise than at rest
- more oxygen is being used by muscle during exercise for respiration

Carbon dioxide
- more carbon dioxide is being exhaled during exercise than at rest
- muscle is producing more carbon dioxide as a waste product

136
Q

Identify the structural features that assist gaseous exchange at the lungs

A

One cell thick walls: allow for short diffusion pathway
Narrow diameter: allows the red blood cells to travel slowly through the capillary
Large surface area: allows for more sites for diffusion

137
Q

How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

A

CO2 binds to haemoglobin to form carbominohaemoglobin

CO2 is then dissolved in the blood plasma

138
Q

Explain why the aerobic training improves the ability to transport oxygen

A
  • Increased % of alveoli: more sites for diffusion at the lungs
  • Increased production of red blood cells: improves capacity to transport oxygen around the body
  • Increased myoglobin production: extract more oxygen from blood to muscle, resynthesise ATP aerobically & work at higher intensities for longer
139
Q

Explain the impact of high altitude on a performer’s gaseous exchange

A
  • There is low PO2 at high altitude
  • The diffusion gradient between the alveoli & the capillaries is lower than at sea level
  • Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to capillary at lower rate
  • Less oxygen is delivered to working muscles
  • Performer must resynthesise ATP anaerobically
  • Causes a build up of lactic acid, leads to fatigue
140
Q

Explain how different receptors control a performer’s minute ventilation/ breathing rate/ tidal volume

A

Chemoreceptors detect a change in blood acidity
Thermoreceptors detect a change in body temperature
Baroreceptors detect a change in blood pressure
Proprioceptors detect muscular contraction
All 4 receptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory control centre (RCC) in the medulla
For MV/BR/TV to increase:
* The RCC sends an increased frequency of sympathetic nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
* This causes MV/BR/TV to increase

For MV/BR/TV to decrease:
* The RCC sends an increased frequency of parasympathetic nerve impulses to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
* This causes MV/BR/TV to decrease

141
Q

Health Related Components

A

Stamina (cardiovascular endurance)
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
Flexibility
Body composition

142
Q

Stamina (CV endurance)

A

The ability to delay the onset of fatigue

The ability to last the full 90 minutes in football match

143
Q

Muscular strength

A

Applying a force to overcome a resistance

Explosive – When running/sprinting

Static – Used when the performer is stationary e.g. shielding the ball from an opponent

144
Q

Muscular endurance

A

The ability to performer repeated muscular contractions

A tennis player repeatedly performing a serve/forehand

145
Q

Flexibility

A

The maximum range of movement around a joint

A gymnast performing the splits

146
Q

Body composition

A

The proportion of body mass made up of fat, muscle, bone and organs

A sprinter will have a greater proportion of muscle than a marathon runner

147
Q

Skill Related Components

A

Agility
Balance
Co-ordination
Power
Speed
Reaction time

148
Q

Agility

A

The ability to change direction quickly

Being able to evade an opponent in rugby

149
Q

Balance

A

The ability to keep the centre of mass over the base of support

A performer staying on their feet when barged by an opponent in football

150
Q

Co-ordination

A

The ability to use two or more limbs smoothly and efficiently

Running with the ball and passing in rugby

151
Q

Power

A

The ability to rapidly apply force
Strength x speed

Pushing out of the blocks in a 100m race

152
Q

Speed

A

The ability to move the body from one place to another quickly

A tennis player moving across the court to return the ball

153
Q

Reaction Time

A

The time from the start of the stimulus to the start of the movement

The time it takes a 100m runner to start to push off the blocks when the gun has fired in the 100m.

154
Q

Principles of Training

A

Specificity
Progressive Overload
Reversibility
Variance

155
Q

Specificity

A

Making training relevant to the performer’s sport, and their role within the sport
The coach should consider:
o Muscle fibre type
o Muscle groups used
o Energy systems used
E.g. A 100m runner would use plyometric training as it uses the fast twitch type 2b muscle fibres in the legs and uses the ATP-PC system.

156
Q

Progressive Overload

A

Gradually change training to force physical adaptations
This can be achieved in 4 ways
o Frequency – Refers to how often the performer trains
o Intensity – Refers to how hard the performer trains
o Time – Refers to how long the performer trains for
o Type – Refers to which method of training the performer uses

157
Q

Reversibility

A

If the performer stops training, then their levels of fitness will decrease
If other principles of training are applied correctly, then this should not happen.
E.g. if a performer stops weight training, then muscular strength will decrease

158
Q

Variance

A

The coach should vary the methods of training to prevent tedium, which can lead to demotivation.
E.g. changing between continuous and interval training

159
Q

FIIT

A

Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type

160
Q

Frequency

A

Refers to how often the performer trains
The performer can gradually increase the number of sessions per week
E.g. Train 3 times per week instead of 4
The performer could also increase the amount of sets/reps

161
Q

Intensity

A

Refers to how hard the performer trains
The performer can increase the intensity by increasing the weight/speed/distance

162
Q

Time

A

Refers to how long the performer trains for
Gradually increase the length of time of the sessions or decrease the period available for rest

163
Q

Type

A

Refers to the method of training used
The coach should ensure that the training is relevant to the performer
E.g. a 100m runner completing plyometric training.

164
Q

Periodisation

A

Involves splitting the year up into phases and cycles.

The purpose of periodisation is to peak for a competition;

In order to peak, the performer must taper their training.

Usually based around a world championships or Olympics

165
Q

Phases of Periodisation

A

Preparation

Competition

Tapering

Transition

166
Q

Preparation

A

Aim is to improve the components of fitness related to performance E.g. A marathon runner will aim to improve cardiovascular endurance

167
Q

Competition

A

Aim is to improve skill levels whilst maintaining fitness levels E.g. A sprinter may work on their jumping technique during hurdles.

168
Q

Tapering

A

The performer will reduce intensity of training and solely focus on skill, to reduce fatigue before competition

169
Q

Transition

A

Is a period of active recovery, before the next preparation phase. E.g. Foam rolling

170
Q

Cycles of Periodisation

A

Micro-Cycle

Meso-Cycle

Macro-Cycle

171
Q

Micro-Cycle

A

Lasts from 1 day to 14 days with an individual goal E.g. Improving technique when driving out the blocks for a sprinter

172
Q

Meso-Cycle

A

Lasts from 2 to 8 weeks with an individual goal E.g. Improving sprint time of first 30m of a race

173
Q

Macro-Cycle

A

Lasts 6 months to 4 years with an individual goal e.g. Win the gold medal at the next Olympics

174
Q

Oxygen Deficit

A

There is not enough oxygen in the muscle to respire aerobically, therefore the performer must respire anaerobically, using the lactate anaerobic system

175
Q

Oxygen Debt

A

Is also known as EPOC - Excess Post exercise Oxygen Consumption
Consuming oxygen above resting levels after exercise

176
Q

EPOC

A

1) Fast component: alactacid component
2) Slow component: lactic acid component

177
Q

Fast component of EPOC

A

Also known as the alacatacid component
Takes around 2-4 minutes and uses 3-5 litres of excess oxygen.
This allows myoglobin stores to be re-saturated.
This means that PC stores can be resynthesised through P + C + Energy
The energy provided to resynthesise PC comes from aerobic respiration

178
Q

Slow component of EPOC

A

This is known as the lactic acid component.
Some lactic acid is oxidised
Some is shuttled to the liver for the cori-cycle to take place. Whereby Lactic acid is converted into glucose, glycogen and pyruvate.
Some is converted into protein.
Some is removed via sweat and urine

179
Q

Explain the effects of work and recovery on PC stores in the muscle [8 marks]

A

Work:
* During periods of work, ATP-PC stores will deplete
* This is because the performer is working at high intensities
* This occurs through creatine kinase detecting high levels of ADP in the muscle
* Therefore it breaks down P+C+ Energy
* This energy is then used to resynthsise ATP

Recovery
* During recovery, stores of PC will increase
* This is due to the fast component of EPOC taking place
* Whereby an extra 3-5 litres of oxygen is used to resaturate stores of myoglobin
* This is then used to resynthesise PC stores through P+C+ Energy
* The energy is provided by aerobic respiration
* However, stores are not fully resynthesised because there is not enough time

180
Q

Explain the effects of exercise and recovery periods on the levels of glycogen in an elite performer [4 Marks]

A

Work
* During periods of work muscle glycogen will deplete
* This is because the majority of energy is provided by aerobic respiration
* Whereby (Process of aerobic respiration)
* This is because the performer is exercising for multiple hours

Recovery
* During recovery, stores of muscle glycogen will increase
* This is because after an event the performer will take on a high carbohydrate meal e.g. pasta
* Additionally, lactic acid that has built during the event will be shuttled to the liver and will be converted back into glycogen and glucose due to the cori-cycle

181
Q

Warm Up Components

A

The performer will complete a pulse raiser

The performer aims to gradually increase the intensity

There will then be a period of dynamic stretches

Lastly, there will be a sport specific activity. E.g. A netballer passing the ball

182
Q

Warm Up Benefits

A

A warm increases the performer’s cardiac output, increasing blood flow
This increases O2 delivery to the working muscle
This means the performer will not build as much lactic acid at the start of a game due to respiring aerobically

A warm up increases muscle temperature, which increases muscle elasticity, reducing the risk of injury

A warm up also increases the performer’s arousal levels to optimum, which will improve performance levels.

183
Q

Cool Down Components

A

The aims to gradually decrease the intensity of the exercise

All exercise will be aerobic

There is then a period static stretching

184
Q

Cool Down Benefits

A

Completing aerobic exercise after competing, maintains a higher O2 delivery to the working muscle
This allows for the quicker saturation of oxygen in the myoglobin. This allows the fast and slow component of EPOC to take place quicker
Additionally, meaning that blood/lactic acid will not pool in the muscle

Lastly, the calm nature of static stretching helps remove adrenaline from the blood which reduces levels of arousal
This allows the performer to access a parasympathetic state, meaning muscle protein resynthesis will take place quicker
This helps to reduce the risk of DOMS

185
Q

Recovery methods

A

1) Ice baths
2) Massage/massage gun
3) Nutrition supplementation

186
Q

Ice bath

A

The performer will sit in a bath full of ice for at least 20 minutes
This causes the blood vessels at the extremities (Arms and legs) to vaso-constrict, reducing blood flow
This redirects blood to the core to protect the vital organs
As blood is closer to the lungs this means it can become more oxygenated

When the performer gets out of the bath, the blood vessels at the extremities vaso-dilate
This means freshly oxygenated blood can flood the area, which helps to flush out any remaining lactic acid

187
Q

Massage/massage gun

A

Massaging an area helps to increase blood flow to a local area

This increases oxygen and nutrient delivery to the working muscle

This can help improve the rate of lactic acid removal and muscle protein synthesis

188
Q

Nutrition supplementation

A

The performer will take on a meal high in carbohydrates e.g. pasta, In order to replenish stores of glycogen in the muscles
This reduces the risk of muscle protein being used as an energy source, which reduces the risk of muscle atrophy (Muscle wasting)

They will also have meal that is high in protein e.g. chicken, which will help to speed up muscle protein synthesis
Which speeds up growth and repair of muscle fibres

Lastly, the performer will supplement creatine monohydrate in order to replenish stores of phosphocreatine in the muscle

189
Q

glycemic index

A

how quickly a food effects an individual’s blood sugar level

190
Q

high glycemic index

A

fast release of energy for an immediate restore of glycogen

191
Q

low glycemic index

A

slower release of energy to restore glycogen over a longer period of time

192
Q

carb advantages

A

*Can be used anaerobically
*Low glycaemic index – slower release of energy to restore glycogen over a longer period of time
*High glycaemic index – fast release of energy for an immediate restore of glycogen

193
Q

carb disadvantages

A

*Too much is stored as fat
*Consuming a diet rich in carbohydrates leads to a build up of plaque around the lumen in the blood vessels, decreasing blood flow in the working muscles
*Too much fat leads to obesity, which leads to a decrease in the components of fitness

194
Q

protein advantages

A

*Increase in muscle growth and repair
*Used for power athletes to repair muscles after exercise
*Can be used as an energy source when fats/glycogen stores are depleted

195
Q

protein disadvantages

A

none

196
Q

fibre

A

*Endurane athletes
*Slows down the rate that the body takes to break down food
*More effective as it allows for more sustained energy release

197
Q

fats advantages

A

*Energy source for aerobic respiration
*Slow releasing energy source at low intensity
*Yield more energy per gram than carbohydrates
*Broken down to form fatty acids, which forma acetyl coA and enter the Krebs cycle to form 34 ATP
*Help the body to absorb vitamin A and E

198
Q

fats disadvantages

A

*Oxygen is required to break down fats so they are not useful at high intensity
*A diet which is high in saturated fats causes plaque to build in the lumen – link to aerobic respiration
*Too much fat leads to obesity, which may reduce all components of fitness e.g. speed, agility
*Too much fat can lead to high cholesterol, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes or heart disease

199
Q

classes of food that are suitable for players who require stamina and why

A

*Fats – Allow for a slow release of energy through aerobic respiration so the performer can last the full game
*Carbohydrates – Required for a rapid release of energy e.g. if a performer is sprinting in a counter attack

200
Q

classes of food that are suitable for power athletes and why

A

*Carbohydrates – For a rapid release of energy
*Protein – for growth and repair of muscles

PE (5 decks)

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