Physiology Flashcards
cardiac muscle contraction
In the resting state, there is more Na+ and Ca++ outside the cell and more K+ inside the cell
frank-starling law
cardiac output= venous return
anterior pituitary gland secretions
ACTH= synthesis of cortisol FSH= stimulates follicles in ovaries to produce estrogen, stimulate Sertoli cells for spermatogenesis LH= stimulates ovulation, progesterone, Leydig cells to produce testosterone GH= bone and tissue growth TSH= stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxin Prolactin= breast development and milk
posterior pituitary gland secretions
oxytocin (paraventricular nucleus)= contraction of uterine muscle, milk ejection
ADH (supraoptic nucleus)= collecting ducts of kidney, prevents water from being excreted in the urine (water reabsorption by kidneys)
thyroid gland
T4= increase metabolism and is less active than T3 T3= increase metabolism and is more active than T4 calcitonin= puts calcium from the blood into bones
parathyroid gland
PTH= secreted by chief cells takes calcium from the bone and puts it into the blood, increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidney and gut
production of calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) which causes an increase in absorption of dietary calcium by the intestines
Cushing’s
increased ACTH or cortisol
moon-shaped face, buffalo hump, rapid weight gain, and hair loss
gigantism and acromegaly
increased GH
dwarfism
decreased GH
hypothyroidism
lack of iodine= decreased thyroxin produced (T3/T4), hyper-secretion of TSH, enlarged thyroid (goiter)
hyperthyroidism (graves)
increased thyroxin (T3/T4), decreased TSH antibodies overstimulate the follicle cells of the thyroid gland, may present with bulging eyes
diabetes insipidus
decreased ADH
hyperparathyroidism
hypercalcemia from increased PTH, muscle fatigue
hypoparathyroidism
hypocalcemia from decreased PTH, tetany (cramping, spasms, convulsions, twitching)
adrenal gland
aldosterone= increases blood sodium levels (under influence of renin)
cortisol= increases blood glucose levels
epinephrine and nor-epinephrine (stimulates fight or flight)
zona glomerulosa
releases aldosterone
zona reticularis
estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (sex hormones)
pancreas endocrine cells
islets of langerhans
pancreas - insulin
insulin is secreted by beta type of islet cells, reduce blood glucose levels
pancreas - glucagon
alpha cells, increase blood glucose levels
pancreas - somatostatin
delta islet cells and D cells (stomach), inhibits renin, insulin, GH, gastrin and glucagon
Mouth - salivary amylase
breaks down carbohydrates and starches into maltose
stomach - mucosal cells
g cells produce gastrin
stomach - chief cells
produce pepsinogen (protein digestion), gastrin
stomach - parietal cells
secretes HCL
small intestine
maltase= breaks down maltose into 2 glucose lactase= breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose sucrase= breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
where is most of the water in food absorbed
large intestine
where is vitamin K produced
large intestine
where are iron and folic acid absorbed
jejunum
Vitamin B12
attached to intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells in the stomach and delivered to the terminal ileum
what controls the gallbladder
cholecystokinin, causes contraction of the gallbladder
what produces cholecystokinin
I cells in the small intestine
what produces secretin
s cells in the crypts of lieberkuhn (small intestine), stimulates the release of bicarb from the pancreas
what produces glucagon-like peptide 1
k cells in the duodenum and jejunum, inhibits gastric emptying
where is ghrelin secreted
p cells in the stomach
where is motilin secreted
cells in duodenum
B cells
the adaptive immune system, bind to the foreign antigen to initiate an antibody response
T cells
cell-mediated immunity, a type of WBC that works with macrophages to fight viruses and pathogens
Never let my engine blow
Biting vines make pain happen
Neutrophils= bacterial infections lymphocytes= viral Monocytes= macrophage Eosinophils= parasitic infection Basophils= hypersensitivity of allergies
granulocytes
Basophils, E, N
agranulocytes
L, M
vascular damage activates what intrinsic pathway
XII, XI, IX, VIII, and X
tissue damages activates what extrinsic pathway
VII and X
B lymphocytes
humoral immunity
bone marrow
T lymphocytes
thymus, through production of activated T lymphocytes
CD8 T cells
cytotoxic t cells, kill things
CD4 T cells
helper t cells
IgG
secondary response (most abundant)
IgA
saliva, tears, breast milk
IgM
primary response, first in the fetus
IgD
surface antibody on B lymphocytes
IgE
parasitic infections and allergies
which bands shorten in skeletal muscle contractions
Z lines move closer together
I band becomes smaller
which band remains the same length in skeletal muscle contractions
A band
what do thick filaments contain
myosin
what do thin filaments contain
actin, troponin, and tropomyosin
pineal gland
melatonin produced from pinealocyte cells= regulates sleep cycle
tryptophan–> serotonin–> melatonin
controlled by light, high levels of light inhibit melatonin production, low levels of light increase melatonin production
testes
testosterone= stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production inhibin= inhibits FSH which stimulates spermatogenesis
ovaries
estrogen= stimulates the development of female secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycle progesterone= menstrual cycle, prepares the body for childbirth and maintaining pregnancy
zona fasciculata
releases cortisol
Addison’s disease
low levels of corticosteroids from the adrenal gland, resulting in low blood glucose and sodium
s/s= weight loss, bronzing of the skin, abdominal pain, cravings for salty food, weakness, nausea, vomiting, sweating
Pancreas, islets of langerhan produce what
Alpha cells= ghrelin
Beta cells= insulin
Delta cells= somatostatin
innate immune response (5 cells)
neutrophils (phagocytic cell attracted by chemotaxis)
macrophages (first line of defense)
cytokines (signaling molecule)
chemokines (similar to cytokine, but attracts cells from longer away)
natural killer cells (apoptosis, programmed cell death)
electrical signaling
direct action of electrical potential, almost instantaneous response
chemical signaling
through the action of chemical NT (such as serotonin or norepinephrine), utilizes hormones that are transported primarily through the bloodstream, where they bind to receptors on target cells, requires more time
command centre for the endocrine system
main control for endocrine functions of the thyroid, adrenal cortex, ovaries, and testes
hypothalamus
Heart: atrial natriuretic peptide
increase in BV or P= increase in ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) which causes the kidneys to reduce sodium reabsorption, therefore decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed to decrease BV
inhibits the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system RAAS
GI tract: gastrin
stimulates the release of HCL acid
GI tract: secretin
stimulates the release of bicarb from the pancreas
GI tract: cholecystokinin
promotes the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile from the gallbladder
Kidney: renin
stimulates RAAS for the reabsorption of sodium and water
Kidney: EPO
released in response to low oxygen levels, which stimulates RBC production from the bone marrow
what cell produces testosterone
leydig cells
what do sertoli cells do
secrete signalling molecules that promote sperm production
epididymus
where newly formed sperm go to mature
what is glomerular filtration rate
the volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute (125mL/min in men and 105mL/min in women)
hydrostatic pressure
is the pressure produced by a fluid and solute through a semipermeable barrier while osmotic pressure works in the opposite way
blood hydrostatic pressure
55mm Hg past glomerulus
blood colloid osmotic pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure
-45mm Hg against glomerulus
net movement
10mm Hg past glomerulus
tubular reabsorption
proximal convoluted tubule
reabsorbs= glucose, amino acids, protein, vitamins, and lactate secretes= urea, uric acid, creatinine, and some drugs
descending loop of henle
reabsorbs= water
ascending loop of henle
reabsorbs= sodium, potassium and chloride secretes= urea
distal convoluted tubule
reabsorbs= sodium, chloride, bicarb, and water secretes= hydrogen ions, potassium, and nitrates
collecting tubule
reabsorbs= urea and water
what does tropomyosin do
winds around the chains of actin filaments and covers myosin-binding sites to prevent actin from binding myosin.
in order for a muscle contraction to happen, tropomyosin has to expose the myosin-binding site on actin filaments to allow the actin-myosin cross bridge to form
what does troponin do
has a binding site for calcium ions
what must happen for thick filaments to slide past thin filaments
the myosin head must pull the actin at the binding sites, detach, recock, and then attach another binding site.
this pulls the z lines closer together. ATP is required in order to make this work
what do intercalated discs in cardiac muscle do
allows the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a wave-like pattern, so that the heart can work as a pump
what protein does smooth muscle use to regulate it
calmodulin, which causes slow and longitudinal rhythmic motion versus an abrupt shortening
what is autorhythmicity
is the ability for the cardiac cells to initiate an electrical potential at a fixed rate that spreads rapidly from cell-to-cell to trigger the contractile mechanism
cell types of the heart, contractile cells
conduct impulses and are responsible for contractions that pump blood through the body
cell types of the heart, conducting cells
initiating and propagating action potential that travels throughout the heart and triggers contractions to pump the blood out of the heart
what establishes the normal cardiac rhythm of the heart for sinus rhythm
SA node
what conductive cells allow for a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions
AV node
what spreads the impulse from the AV node around the heart
bundle of His
what spreads the impulse to the ventricles
Purkinje fibers
what controls membrane potential
sodium and potassium ions
sodium ions depolarize (-60 to -40 mV), then calcium channels open causing further depolarization
calcium channels close, potassium channels open and ions repolarize cell potential
what type of cells in the heart have a more stable resting phase
contractile cells (-80 mV for cells in atria, -90 mV for cells in ventricle)
PQRST, P wave
represents the depolarization of the atria
QRS wave
represents the depolarization of the ventricles
T wave
represents the repolarization of the ventricles
Inflammatory response stages
1= tissue injury (histamine increases the diameter of local blood vessels= swelling) 2= vasodilation (produced from histamine= swelling and redness) 3= increased vascular permeability (causes leakage of fluid into interstitial space, resulting in swelling and edema) 4= recruitment of phagocytes (leukotrienes and macrophages are recruited to clean up)
T-cell mediated response, antigen processing
the mechanism that enzymatically cleaves antigen into smaller pieces, which are then brought to the cell’s surface
Memory T cells and effector cells
allow for faster action and generated as a result of being activated by a particular antigen that is present to eliminate it
Helper T cells
secrete cytokines to enhance other immune functions
Cytotoxic T cells
kill target cells by inducing apoptosis
Suppressor T cells
suppress other T cell immune responses to prevent over-reaction
B-cell mediated response
differentiate in bone marrow, regulated through central or peripheral tolerance
after B cells are activated by binding to an antigen, they differentiate into plasma cells, which release antibodies until they die
Memory B cells
function in a way similar to memory T cells, allowing a stronger and faster secondary response
what is ventilation
the movement of air into and out of the lungs
what is perfusion
the flow of blood in the pulmonary capillaries
internal respiration
gas exchange that occurs at the level of the body tissues
what does the medulla oblongata contain and do
dorsal respiratory group= maintains constant breathing rhythm
ventral respiratory group= involved in forced breathing
apneustic center
has neuronal cell bodies that stimulate neurons, controlling the depth of inspiration
pneumotaxic center
allows for relaxation after inspiration
what is the first pass effect
the concentration of the drug is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation (a portion of the drug is lost when absorbed in the liver and gut)
glycolysis
breaks down glucose into 3-carbon compounds to generate energy, 2 ATP per 1 glucose
glycogenolysis
breaks down glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen, takes place in the hepatocytes and myocytes
gluconeogenesis
transforms non-carbohydrate substrates (lactate, amino acids, glycerol) into glucose, 6 ATPs are used;
running on an empty stomach (fasting and intense exercise)
liver enzyme
ALT
pancreas enzyme
amylase lipase
kid scraped elbow but then got arthritis at the hip
hematogenous spread
what pathway do NSAIDs work on
cyclooxygenase 2, cox
what passes from the mom to the baby in the placenta
IgG
what organ is affected in Von Gierke’s disease
liver, due to G6P build-up, not being able to break down glycogen
what does calcitonin do
activates Vit D, also tones the bones
DVT is caused from
an event that damaged blood vessel wall
what can result from chronic NSAID use w/ abdominal pain and rigidity
gastric ulcer
what are gallstones made from vs kidney stones
bile vs. calcium oxalate
M spike of IgG antibodies indicates what
multiple myeloma
syringomyelia affects what tracts
anterior and lateral spinothalamic spares medial lemniscus
Cushing’s is a disease from what
excess ACTH from pituitary adenoma which results in excess cortisol from the adrenal gland
what causes diabetes insipidus
decreased ADH
fractured cribriform plate, what sense is lost
sense of smell CN I
positional vertigo is caused by
degenerative particles floating in the semicircular canals
what tract is involved if someone has a resting tremor and spastic paralysis of the right arm
pyramidal
what condition is decreased dopamine seen in
Parkinson’s
what condition is decreased GABA from caudate nucleus seen in
Huntington’s
what organ gives LRQ pain
appendix
what does a spike in LH in the menstrual cycle mean
ovulation
collecting tubule is acted upon by which hormone
ADH to absorb water, if it’s not working diabetes insipidus
Krebs in mitochondria
38 ATP total -2 from glycolysis= Net 36 ATP
what is epinephrines role
it increases the rate of contraction, increasing blood output and blood pressure;
stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing blood glucose
estimated time it takes to remove 50% of the drug from the body
half-life
bradykinin
vasodilation
what is the most common level for a AAA to occur at
L2-L3
