Physiology Flashcards
1
Q
cardiac muscle contraction
A
In the resting state, there is more Na+ and Ca++ outside the cell and more K+ inside the cell
2
Q
frank-starling law
A
cardiac output= venous return
3
Q
anterior pituitary gland secretions
A
ACTH= synthesis of cortisol FSH= stimulates follicles in ovaries to produce estrogen, stimulate Sertoli cells for spermatogenesis LH= stimulates ovulation, progesterone, Leydig cells to produce testosterone GH= bone and tissue growth TSH= stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxin Prolactin= breast development and milk
4
Q
posterior pituitary gland secretions
A
oxytocin (paraventricular nucleus)= contraction of uterine muscle, milk ejection
ADH (supraoptic nucleus)= collecting ducts of kidney, prevents water from being excreted in the urine (water reabsorption by kidneys)
5
Q
thyroid gland
A
T4= increase metabolism and is less active than T3 T3= increase metabolism and is more active than T4 calcitonin= puts calcium from the blood into bones
6
Q
parathyroid gland
A
PTH= secreted by chief cells takes calcium from the bone and puts it into the blood, increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidney and gut
production of calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) which causes an increase in absorption of dietary calcium by the intestines
7
Q
Cushing’s
A
increased ACTH or cortisol
moon-shaped face, buffalo hump, rapid weight gain, and hair loss
8
Q
gigantism and acromegaly
A
increased GH
9
Q
dwarfism
A
decreased GH
10
Q
hypothyroidism
A
lack of iodine= decreased thyroxin produced (T3/T4), hyper-secretion of TSH, enlarged thyroid (goiter)
11
Q
hyperthyroidism (graves)
A
increased thyroxin (T3/T4), decreased TSH antibodies overstimulate the follicle cells of the thyroid gland, may present with bulging eyes
12
Q
diabetes insipidus
A
decreased ADH
13
Q
hyperparathyroidism
A
hypercalcemia from increased PTH, muscle fatigue
14
Q
hypoparathyroidism
A
hypocalcemia from decreased PTH, tetany (cramping, spasms, convulsions, twitching)
15
Q
adrenal gland
A
aldosterone= increases blood sodium levels (under influence of renin)
cortisol= increases blood glucose levels
epinephrine and nor-epinephrine (stimulates fight or flight)
16
Q
zona glomerulosa
A
releases aldosterone
17
Q
zona reticularis
A
estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (sex hormones)
18
Q
pancreas endocrine cells
A
islets of langerhans
19
Q
pancreas - insulin
A
insulin is secreted by beta type of islet cells, reduce blood glucose levels
20
Q
pancreas - glucagon
A
alpha cells, increase blood glucose levels
21
Q
pancreas - somatostatin
A
delta islet cells and D cells (stomach), inhibits renin, insulin, GH, gastrin and glucagon
22
Q
Mouth - salivary amylase
A
breaks down carbohydrates and starches into maltose
23
Q
stomach - mucosal cells
A
g cells produce gastrin
24
Q
stomach - chief cells
A
produce pepsinogen (protein digestion), gastrin
25
stomach - parietal cells
secretes HCL
26
small intestine
```
maltase= breaks down maltose into 2 glucose
lactase= breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose
sucrase= breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
```
27
where is most of the water in food absorbed
large intestine
28
where is vitamin K produced
large intestine
29
where are iron and folic acid absorbed
jejunum
30
Vitamin B12
attached to intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells in the stomach and delivered to the terminal ileum
31
what controls the gallbladder
cholecystokinin, causes contraction of the gallbladder
32
what produces cholecystokinin
I cells in the small intestine
33
what produces secretin
s cells in the crypts of lieberkuhn (small intestine), stimulates the release of bicarb from the pancreas
34
what produces glucagon-like peptide 1
k cells in the duodenum and jejunum, inhibits gastric emptying
35
where is ghrelin secreted
p cells in the stomach
36
where is motilin secreted
cells in duodenum
37
B cells
the adaptive immune system, bind to the foreign antigen to initiate an antibody response
38
T cells
cell-mediated immunity, a type of WBC that works with macrophages to fight viruses and pathogens
39
Never let my engine blow
| Biting vines make pain happen
```
Neutrophils= bacterial infections
lymphocytes= viral
Monocytes= macrophage
Eosinophils= parasitic infection
Basophils= hypersensitivity of allergies
```
40
granulocytes
Basophils, E, N
41
agranulocytes
L, M
42
vascular damage activates what intrinsic pathway
XII, XI, IX, VIII, and X
43
tissue damages activates what extrinsic pathway
VII and X
44
B lymphocytes
humoral immunity
| bone marrow
45
T lymphocytes
thymus, through production of activated T lymphocytes
46
CD8 T cells
cytotoxic t cells, kill things
47
CD4 T cells
helper t cells
48
IgG
secondary response (most abundant)
49
IgA
saliva, tears, breast milk
50
IgM
primary response, first in the fetus
51
IgD
surface antibody on B lymphocytes
52
IgE
parasitic infections and allergies
53
which bands shorten in skeletal muscle contractions
Z lines move closer together
| I band becomes smaller
54
which band remains the same length in skeletal muscle contractions
A band
55
what do thick filaments contain
myosin
56
what do thin filaments contain
actin, troponin, and tropomyosin
57
pineal gland
melatonin produced from pinealocyte cells= regulates sleep cycle
tryptophan--> serotonin--> melatonin
controlled by light, high levels of light inhibit melatonin production, low levels of light increase melatonin production
58
testes
```
testosterone= stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
inhibin= inhibits FSH which stimulates spermatogenesis
```
59
ovaries
```
estrogen= stimulates the development of female secondary sex characteristics, menstrual cycle
progesterone= menstrual cycle, prepares the body for childbirth and maintaining pregnancy
```
60
zona fasciculata
releases cortisol
61
Addison's disease
low levels of corticosteroids from the adrenal gland, resulting in low blood glucose and sodium
s/s= weight loss, bronzing of the skin, abdominal pain, cravings for salty food, weakness, nausea, vomiting, sweating
62
Pancreas, islets of langerhan produce what
Alpha cells= ghrelin
Beta cells= insulin
Delta cells= somatostatin
63
innate immune response (5 cells)
neutrophils (phagocytic cell attracted by chemotaxis)
macrophages (first line of defense)
cytokines (signaling molecule)
chemokines (similar to cytokine, but attracts cells from longer away)
natural killer cells (apoptosis, programmed cell death)
64
electrical signaling
direct action of electrical potential, almost instantaneous response
65
chemical signaling
through the action of chemical NT (such as serotonin or norepinephrine), utilizes hormones that are transported primarily through the bloodstream, where they bind to receptors on target cells, requires more time
66
command centre for the endocrine system
| main control for endocrine functions of the thyroid, adrenal cortex, ovaries, and testes
hypothalamus
67
Heart: atrial natriuretic peptide
increase in BV or P= increase in ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) which causes the kidneys to reduce sodium reabsorption, therefore decreasing the amount of water reabsorbed to decrease BV
inhibits the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system RAAS
68
GI tract: gastrin
stimulates the release of HCL acid
69
GI tract: secretin
stimulates the release of bicarb from the pancreas
70
GI tract: cholecystokinin
promotes the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile from the gallbladder
71
Kidney: renin
stimulates RAAS for the reabsorption of sodium and water
72
Kidney: EPO
released in response to low oxygen levels, which stimulates RBC production from the bone marrow
73
what cell produces testosterone
leydig cells
74
what do sertoli cells do
secrete signalling molecules that promote sperm production
75
epididymus
where newly formed sperm go to mature
76
what is glomerular filtration rate
the volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute (125mL/min in men and 105mL/min in women)
77
hydrostatic pressure
is the pressure produced by a fluid and solute through a semipermeable barrier while osmotic pressure works in the opposite way
78
blood hydrostatic pressure
55mm Hg past glomerulus
79
blood colloid osmotic pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure
-45mm Hg against glomerulus
80
net movement
10mm Hg past glomerulus
81
tubular reabsorption
| proximal convoluted tubule
```
reabsorbs= glucose, amino acids, protein, vitamins, and lactate
secretes= urea, uric acid, creatinine, and some drugs
```
82
descending loop of henle
reabsorbs= water
83
ascending loop of henle
```
reabsorbs= sodium, potassium and chloride
secretes= urea
```
84
distal convoluted tubule
```
reabsorbs= sodium, chloride, bicarb, and water
secretes= hydrogen ions, potassium, and nitrates
```
85
collecting tubule
reabsorbs= urea and water
86
what does tropomyosin do
winds around the chains of actin filaments and covers myosin-binding sites to prevent actin from binding myosin.
in order for a muscle contraction to happen, tropomyosin has to expose the myosin-binding site on actin filaments to allow the actin-myosin cross bridge to form
87
what does troponin do
has a binding site for calcium ions
88
what must happen for thick filaments to slide past thin filaments
the myosin head must pull the actin at the binding sites, detach, recock, and then attach another binding site.
this pulls the z lines closer together. ATP is required in order to make this work
89
what do intercalated discs in cardiac muscle do
allows the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a wave-like pattern, so that the heart can work as a pump
90
what protein does smooth muscle use to regulate it
calmodulin, which causes slow and longitudinal rhythmic motion versus an abrupt shortening
91
what is autorhythmicity
is the ability for the cardiac cells to initiate an electrical potential at a fixed rate that spreads rapidly from cell-to-cell to trigger the contractile mechanism
92
cell types of the heart, contractile cells
conduct impulses and are responsible for contractions that pump blood through the body
93
cell types of the heart, conducting cells
initiating and propagating action potential that travels throughout the heart and triggers contractions to pump the blood out of the heart
94
what establishes the normal cardiac rhythm of the heart for sinus rhythm
SA node
95
what conductive cells allow for a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions
AV node
96
what spreads the impulse from the AV node around the heart
bundle of His
97
what spreads the impulse to the ventricles
Purkinje fibers
98
what controls membrane potential
sodium and potassium ions
sodium ions depolarize (-60 to -40 mV), then calcium channels open causing further depolarization
calcium channels close, potassium channels open and ions repolarize cell potential
99
what type of cells in the heart have a more stable resting phase
contractile cells (-80 mV for cells in atria, -90 mV for cells in ventricle)
100
PQRST, P wave
represents the depolarization of the atria
101
QRS wave
represents the depolarization of the ventricles
102
T wave
represents the repolarization of the ventricles
103
Inflammatory response stages
```
1= tissue injury (histamine increases the diameter of local blood vessels= swelling)
2= vasodilation (produced from histamine= swelling and redness)
3= increased vascular permeability (causes leakage of fluid into interstitial space, resulting in swelling and edema)
4= recruitment of phagocytes (leukotrienes and macrophages are recruited to clean up)
```
104
T-cell mediated response, antigen processing
the mechanism that enzymatically cleaves antigen into smaller pieces, which are then brought to the cell's surface
105
Memory T cells and effector cells
allow for faster action and generated as a result of being activated by a particular antigen that is present to eliminate it
106
Helper T cells
secrete cytokines to enhance other immune functions
107
Cytotoxic T cells
kill target cells by inducing apoptosis
108
Suppressor T cells
suppress other T cell immune responses to prevent over-reaction
109
B-cell mediated response
differentiate in bone marrow, regulated through central or peripheral tolerance
after B cells are activated by binding to an antigen, they differentiate into plasma cells, which release antibodies until they die
110
Memory B cells
function in a way similar to memory T cells, allowing a stronger and faster secondary response
111
what is ventilation
the movement of air into and out of the lungs
112
what is perfusion
the flow of blood in the pulmonary capillaries
113
internal respiration
gas exchange that occurs at the level of the body tissues
114
what does the medulla oblongata contain and do
dorsal respiratory group= maintains constant breathing rhythm
ventral respiratory group= involved in forced breathing
115
apneustic center
has neuronal cell bodies that stimulate neurons, controlling the depth of inspiration
116
pneumotaxic center
allows for relaxation after inspiration
117
what is the first pass effect
the concentration of the drug is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation (a portion of the drug is lost when absorbed in the liver and gut)
118
glycolysis
breaks down glucose into 3-carbon compounds to generate energy, 2 ATP per 1 glucose
119
glycogenolysis
breaks down glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen, takes place in the hepatocytes and myocytes
120
gluconeogenesis
transforms non-carbohydrate substrates (lactate, amino acids, glycerol) into glucose, 6 ATPs are used;
running on an empty stomach (fasting and intense exercise)
121
liver enzyme
ALT
122
pancreas enzyme
amylase lipase
123
kid scraped elbow but then got arthritis at the hip
hematogenous spread
124
what pathway do NSAIDs work on
cyclooxygenase 2, cox
125
what passes from the mom to the baby in the placenta
IgG
126
what organ is affected in Von Gierke's disease
liver, due to G6P build-up, not being able to break down glycogen
127
what does calcitonin do
activates Vit D, also tones the bones
128
DVT is caused from
an event that damaged blood vessel wall
129
what can result from chronic NSAID use w/ abdominal pain and rigidity
gastric ulcer
130
what are gallstones made from vs kidney stones
bile vs. calcium oxalate
131
M spike of IgG antibodies indicates what
multiple myeloma
132
syringomyelia affects what tracts
anterior and lateral spinothalamic spares medial lemniscus
133
Cushing's is a disease from what
excess ACTH from pituitary adenoma which results in excess cortisol from the adrenal gland
134
what causes diabetes insipidus
decreased ADH
135
fractured cribriform plate, what sense is lost
sense of smell CN I
136
positional vertigo is caused by
degenerative particles floating in the semicircular canals
137
what tract is involved if someone has a resting tremor and spastic paralysis of the right arm
pyramidal
138
what condition is decreased dopamine seen in
Parkinson's
139
what condition is decreased GABA from caudate nucleus seen in
Huntington's
140
what organ gives LRQ pain
appendix
141
what does a spike in LH in the menstrual cycle mean
ovulation
142
collecting tubule is acted upon by which hormone
ADH to absorb water, if it's not working diabetes insipidus
143
Krebs in mitochondria
38 ATP total -2 from glycolysis= Net 36 ATP
144
what is epinephrines role
it increases the rate of contraction, increasing blood output and blood pressure;
stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing blood glucose
145
estimated time it takes to remove 50% of the drug from the body
half-life
146
bradykinin
vasodilation
147
what is the most common level for a AAA to occur at
L2-L3
