Physics and Math Flashcards
Aberration
Visual alterations as the result of an imperfect optical device; may be chromatic or spherical
Absolute pressure
The actual pressure at w given depth in fluid, including both ambient pressure at the surface and the pressure associated with increased depth in the fluid; also called hydrostatic pressure
Absolute zero:
The theoretically coldest temperature at which all atomic movements would halt (0 K)
Acceleration
The rate of change in the velocity of an object; related to force through mass and measured in m/s2
Accuracy
The tendency for data to represent the true answer; also known as validity
Adhesion
The intermolecular force between molecules of a liquid and molecules of another substance
Adiabatic
A thermodynamic process that occurs with no heat exchange
Algebraic system
A method for determining the values of variables that are the same in two or more equations by relating them to each other
Alpha-particle
a helium nucleus (4^2He)
Amplitude
The maximum displacement from the equilibrium point during wave or oscillatory motion
Antinode
A point of zero displacement in a standing wave
Archimede’s principle
States that a body immersed in a volume of fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of a given element
Attenuation
The loss of energy of a propagating wave as a result of non-conservative forces; also known as damping
Autonomy
The ethical principle that states that individuals have the right to make decisions about their own healthcare
Beneficence
The ethical principle that states that practitioners should always act in their patients’ best interest; in research ethics, also states that a research project should create a net positive change for both the study population and general population
β-particle
An electron emitted during β- decay, or a positron emitted during β+ decay
Bernoulli’s equation
An equation that relates static and dynamic pressure exerted on the walls of a tube and the speed of the fluid
Blinding
Withholding information about a research subject’s group assignment from the subject or evaluator to remove some potential bias from the results
Boiling point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the ambient (incident) pressure, usually atmospheric pressure; the temperature at which the liquid boils
Boundary layer
A region of a laminar flow in an otherwise turbulent system that occurs at the very edges of the vessel
Box-and-whisker plot
A visual representation of the range of data quantiles, and the interquartile range; may contain outlines as separate points
Buoyancy
The upward force that results from immersion in a fluid; described by Archimedes’ principle
Capacitance
A measure of the ability of a capacitor to store charge; the magnitude of the charge on one plate divided by the potential difference between the plates; measured in farads (F)
Capacitor
Two conducting surfaces that stores charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign when connected to a voltage source
Center of gravity
A point such that the entire force of gravity acting on an object can be thought as acting at that point
Center of mass
The point that acts as if the entire mass of an object was concentrated at that poin
Centripetal acceleration
The acceleration of an object that travels in a circle; it is always directed toward the center of the circle of the object is in uniform circular motion
Centripetal force
The force responsible for centripetal acceleration; usually a result of gravity, tension, or a normal force
Charges
Entities that can influence the environment through electrostatic forces or be influenced by electrostatic forces, measured in coulombs (C)
Cohesion
The intermolecular forces experienced between the molecules of a liquid
Concave
A surface that has a similar curvature to the interior of a sphere
)(
Condensation
The phase transition from a gas to a liquid
Conductor
A material that allows the free movement of electrical charge; one with very low or zero resistance
Confidence
A statistical indicator of the likelihood that acquired results did not occur by random chance; equal to 1-α
Confounding
An error that results when a causal variable is associated with two other variables in a study but is not accounted for; many falsely indicate that the two variables are associated
Conservative force
A force that does not cause energy to be dissipated from a system, such as gravity, electrostatic forces, and springs (approximately conservative); pathway independent and associated with a potential energy function
Control
A set of experimental conditions meant meant to ensure that the results of the experimental groups are a result of the intervention
Convection
Heat transfer as a result of bulk flow of a fluid over an object
Converging
The tendency to move parallel light rays toward one another; convoke mirror and convex lenses converge parallel light to a focal point
Convex
A surface that has a similar curvature to the exterior of a sphere
()
Coulomb’s law
Relates the electrostatic force between two charged particles to their charges and the distance between them
Critical angle
The angle above which any incident light will undergo total internal reflection; occurs when light is moving from a material within a higher refractive index to one with a lower refractive index
Critical speed
The speed above which flow of a fluid will be turbulent
Current
The orderly movement of charge, often in a circuit; measured by convention as the direction that positive charge would flow within the circuit, and measured in amperes (A)
Decay constant
The proportionality constant between the rate at which radioactivity nuclei decay and the number of radioactive nuclei remaining
Density
A measure of mass per unit volume; useful for buoyancy calculations and usually measured in g/cm, kg/m3, or g/mL
Dependent variable
The measured or observed variable in an experiment that is affected by manipulations of the independent variable
Detection bias
An error in data collection that results from the tendency to look more carefully for certain outcomes because a known association with that outcome exists
Dielectric material
An insulating material used to increase capacitance
Diffraction
The spreading or bending of light rays
Dispersion
The separation of light into its component wavelengths when passing through a medium, such as a prism
Displacement
The vector representing the straight-line distance and direction from an initial point; nor necessarily equal to total distance traveled, and measured in meters
Diverging
The tendency to move parallel light rays away from one another; convex mirrors and concave lenses diverge parallel light rays from a focal point
Doppler effect
Quantifies the perceived change in frequency of sound due to relative movement between the source and detector (observer)
Electric dipole
A separation of equal and opposite charge by a small distance; can be seen in polar molecules
Electric field
A region generated by an electric charge or multiple charges that can exert a force on another charge brought into the field; measured in N/C
Electric meters
Devices used to measure circuit quantities like current, potential difference, or resistance
Electrical potential
A measure of electrical potential energy per unit charge, given in volts (V); differences in electrical potential (voltage) also drive current as the electromotive force in a circuit
Electromagnetic radiation
A form of energy composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of propagation; includes visible light and other types of transverse waves, can can travel through a vacuum
Electromotive force
The difference in electrical potential (voltage) that drives current in a circuit or battery
Energy
The capacity to do work or transfer hear, measured in joules (J)
Entropy
A statistical measure of the distribution of unusable energy or heat; randomness introduced to a system, measured in J / (g·K)
Equilibrium
The state at which the net torque or net force is equal to zero, such that there is not acceleration
Equipoise
The state of not knowing whether there is a difference between two interventions; ethically necessary for comparative study of the interventions
Equipotential lines
Regions within an electric field with equal electrical potential; movement from one point on these lines to another causes no change in the energy of the system
Excited state
Describes an atom in which an electron occupies an energy state above the minimum energy (ground) state
Exhaustive
Describe a set of outcomes that leave no room for other possible outcomes
External validity
The ability to apply findings of a research study to other populations; also called generalizability
Field line
A visual representation of the electric field; points to the direction a force would be exerted on a positive test charge in the electric field
FINER method
A way to determine the usefulness of a research question on the basis of feasibility, interest, novelty, ethics, and relevance
Fission
The splitting of a large nucleus into smaller nuclei with the release of energy
Fluid
A material that conforms to the shape of its container and that can flow
Fluorescence
A process in which the electrons of certain substances are excited to high energy levels by high-frequency photons, and then emit visible light as the energy is released in two or more steps back to the ground state
Focal length
The distance from a mirror or lens to the focal point
Focal punt
The point at which rays of light parallel to the axis of a mirror or lens converge, or from which they appear to diverge when reflected by a mirror or refracted by a lens
Force
A push or a pull, measured in newtons (N)
Free fall
A system in which the only force is gravity
Freezing
The phase transition from liquid to solid; also called solidification
Frequency
The rate at which a recurring event occurs; usually measured in hertz (Hz)
Friction
A nonconservative force that arises from the interactions between two surfaces in contact
Fundamental frequency
The first harmonic of a pipe, string, or other standing wave
Fusion
The merging of small nuclei into a larger nucleus with the release of energy
𝛄-rays
High-energy photons released during radioactive decay; part of the electromagnetic spectrum
Gauge pressure
Pressure above and beyond atmospheric pressure
Gravity
An attractive force between two objects that depends on their masses and the distance between them
Ground state
The lowest energy state of an atom
Half-life
The amount of time it takes for one-half of a sample of radioactive nuclei to decay
Harmonic series
The set of frequencies that can create standing waves in a given pipe or string
Hawthorne effect
The tendency for research participants to change their behavior because they know they are being observed
Heat
The transfer of thermal energy; measured in joules (J), calories (cal), or kilocalories (kcal or Cal)
Heat of transformation
The amount of heat necessary to cause a phase transition of a unit mass of a substance at the characteristic temperature and pressure of that phase transition
Hill’s criteria
A systematized way of evaluating evidence for causality; only temporality is absolutely necessary to demonstrate causality
Histogram
A visual representation for numerical data; related to a bar char
Hydraulic system
A simple machine that exerts mechanical advantage using an incompressible fluid; based on Pascal’s principle and conservation of energy
Hydrostatics
The study of fluid systems at rest
Hyperopia
Farsightedness, or the ability to see distant objects while nearby objects are unfocused or blurry
Hypothesis testing
A statistical method used to compare results between groups or to a theoretical value with a given level of confidence
Image
The region where light rays converge or appear to converge after being reflected from a mirror or passing through a lens
Independent variable
The manipulated variable in an experiment that affects measurements or observations of the dependent variable
Index of refraction
A ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium
Inertia
An object’s resistance to a change in its motion when a force is applied
Informed consent
An ethical requirement for treatments or research, which requires that the patient of participant is able to understand the procedure and its consequences and alternatives; related to autonomy
Infrared
A region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is not visible; may be perceived as heat
Infrasonic
Sound that has a frequency that is lower than the range of human hearing
Insulator
A material that resists the movement of share because the electrons are tightly associated with their nuclei
Intensity
The average rate of energy expenditure (power) per unit area, measured in W/m2; in waves, intensity is related to the amplitude of the wave
Interference
Interactions between waves traveling in the same space; may be constructive (waves adding together), destructive (waves cancelling each other), partially constructive, or partially destructive
Internal validity
The ability to infer causality from a study or to replicate its results under the same condition
Interquartile range
A measure of distribution of a sample; outliers lie at least 1.5 interquartile ranges below Q1 or above Q3
Inverted
Describes an image that is upside down relative to the object in single-mirror or single-lens systems, inverted images are always real
Irreversible
A thermodynamic process that is extraordinarily unfavorable in reverse, usually as a result of changes in entropy
Isobaric
A thermodynamic process that occurs under constant pressure
Isothermal
A thermodynamic process that occurs under constant temperature
Isotopes
Atoms of a given element with different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers
Isovolumentric
a thermodynamic process that occurs under constant volume; also called isochoric
Justice
The ethical principle that states that practitioners should fairly distribute healthcare resources, and which requires that differences in treatment choices between individuals are only due to morally relevant differences
Kinetic energy
The energy of movement, which depends on both mass and speed; measured in joules (J)
Kirchoff’s laws
Rules that describe the conservation of charge and conservation of energy within an electric circuit; includes the junction rule and loop rule
Laminar flow
Smooth flow within a fluid; characterized by streamlines that do not cross each other and an absence of backwards movement
Lenses
Devices that act to create an image by refracting light; usually have spherical surfaces
Logarithm
The inverse function of exponentiation; logarithmic scales are often used to mask large absolute differences between quantities by presenting them as small scale differences
Longitudinal wave
A wave in which the oscillation of the material is parallel to the direction of propagation; sound is a classic example
Loudness
Perceived intensity of a sound, which correlates with sound level; measured in decibels (dB)
Magnification
Apparent increase or decrease in size of an image as a result of forming the image with a converging or diverging system
Mass
A measure of inertia or of the amount of “stuff” in an object; measured in kilograms
Mass defect
The difference between the sum of the masses of unbound nucleons forming a nucleus and the mass of that nucleus in the bound state
Mass number
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom; also called the atomic mass
Mean
The average of a group of data; specifically, the arithmetic mean
Mechanical advantage
The reduction in input force required to accomplish a desired amount of output work using a simple machine
Median
The central value of a data set
Meltin
The phase transition from solid to liquid; also known as fusion
Metric system
A system of measurements based on the powers of ten; most commonly used in scientific disciplines
Microwaves
Long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation capable of inducing vibration in bonds
Mode
The most common data point in a data set
Monochromatic
Electromagnetic radiation wherein the wavelength is the same for all incident photons
Mutually exclusive
Describes outcomes that cannot occur simultaneously
Myopia
Nearsightedness, or the ability to see nearby objects while distant objets are unfocused or blurry
Natural frequency
The frequency at which a system resonates; also called the resonant frequency
Node
A point of maximum displacement of a standing wave
Nonconservative force
A force that causes energy to be dissipated from a system, such as friction, air resistance, and vicious drag; pathway dependent
Nonmaleficence
The ethical principle that states that practitioners have an obligation to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm is greater than the potential for good
Normal
A line perpendicular to the surface of interest
Normal force
The force that two surfaces in contact exert on each other that is perpendicular to the plane of contact
Nucleon
A proton or neutron
Null hypothesis
The hypothesis of no difference; given enough statistical evidence, the null hypothesis may be rejected
Ohm’s law
Relates voltage, current, and resistance for a given circuit element
Outliers
A data point that deviates significantly from the perceived pattern of distribution; depending on the context, an outlier may be disregard, analyzed normally, or given disproportionate weight when calculating statistics
Parallel
An arrangement of circuit elements in which the current can go through one element or the other, but not through both
Parameter
A measure of population data
Pascal’s prnciple
States that pressure applied to a non compressible fluid is distributed equally to all points within that fluid and the walls of the container
Period
The amount of time it takes for a wave or oscillation to complete one cycle, measured in seconds; the inverse of frequency
Pitch
A perception of sound that results from its frequency; as frequency increases, pitch gets higher
Pitot tubes
Measurement devices for pressure or flow rates of a dynamic fluid system
Plane mirrors
Reflecting surfaces with an infinite radius of curvature, which results in equal image and object distances
Plane-polarized light
Electromagnetic radiation in which all of the electric field vectors are oriented parallel to one another
Poisulille’s law
Relates viscosity, tube dimensions, and pressure differentials to the rate of flow between two points in a system
Population
The group of all individuals who have certain desired characteristics
Positrons
Antiparticle of an electron; it has the same mass as an electron and the opposite charge (e+ or β+)
Potential difference
The difference of electrical potential between two distinct points, measured in volts (V): also called voltage
Potential energy
Energy associated with position, measured in joules (J); includes gravitational, elastic, chemical, and electrical forms
Power
Rate at which work is accomplished, or energy expenditure per unit time; measured in watts (W)
Precision
The tendency of measurements to agree with one another; also called reliability
Pressure
The ratio of force to the area over which it is applied; measured is pascals (Pa), millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or torr, or atmospheres (atm)
Process functions
Physical quantities that depend on the path taken to get from one state to another; include work and heat
Quantum
A discrete bundle of energy such as the photon
Quartiles
Values that separate data in ascending order into four evenly sized groups
Radiation
A method of heat transfer that relies on electromagnetic waves; can occur in a vacuum
Radio waves
Very long wavelength electromagnetic radiation
Randomization
A method of reducing bias and confounding during research in which participants are assigned to a group by a random number generator or similar method; participants or researches cannot choose the groups
Range
The difference between the smallest number in a data set and the largest
Ray diagram
Visual representation of a geometrical optics system
Real
Describes an image on the same side of a lens or mirror as the refracted or reflected light that can be projected on a screen; in a single-mirror or single-lens systems, real images are always inverted
Reflection
The return of light rays from a medium at an angle equal to the incident angle
Refraction
The bending of light rays as a result of a change in the index of refraction between media
Resistance
A measure of the opposition to current flow through a material, measured in ohms (Ω); the inverse of conductance
Resistivity
A measure of the intrinsic of a material independent of its shape or size; resistivity generally increases with temperature
Repect for persons
A principle of research ethics that encompasses anatomy and informed consent
Right-hand-rule
A method for determining the direction of a vector that is the product of two vectors
Rotation
The turning of an extended body about an axis or center
Sample
A subset of a population that is used to make generalizations about the population as a whole
Sacalar
A mathematical quantity that lacks directionality
Scientific method
A systematized way of evaluating data and investigating new hypotheses
Scientific notation
A mathematical representation of quantities as multiple of powers of ten
Selection bias
Occurs when research participants differ from the general population in a meaningful way
Series
An arrangement of circuit elements in which the current must go through all of the elements
Shock wave
The buildup of wave fronts that occurs when the source is traveling at or above the speed of sound
Significant figures
A tool for maintaining appropriate levels of precision when performing mathematical calculations
Snell’s law
Relates the incident angle, refracted angle, and indices of refraction for two media
Solid
A material with distinct boundaries and strong intermolecular forces capable of resisting shear forces
Sound
The perception of longitudinal waves of pressure changes in air and other media
Specific gravity
The ratio of an object’s density to the density of water; unitless
Specific heat
The relationship between thermal energy and temperature change per unit mass of a substance, measured in J / (g·K)
Speed
The ratio of distance traveled to time; at any given point, instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity; measured in m/s
Spherical mirror
A mirror that causes convergence or divergence of light rays incident upon its surface
Standard deviation
A measure of distribution of data from the mean of a sample; outliers lie at least three standard deviations above of below the mean
Standing waves
Waveforms with steady nodes and antinodes formed from the interference of incident and reflected waves at a boundary
State functions
Physical quantities that can be determined based not he state of an object, such as pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy, and entropy; pathway independent
Statistic
A measure of sample data
Streamlines
Visual representations of the movement of fluid during laminar flow
Surface tension
The result of the cohesive forces in a liquid creating a barrier at the interface between a liquid and the environment
Surroundings
Everything that is not being measured as part of a given system
System
The observed and quantified region of the universe of interest to the experimenter
Temperature
A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance; measured in degrees Fahrenheit (°F), degrees of Celsius (°C), or kelvins (K)
Terminal velocity
The velocity at which air resistance is equal to gravitational force and no acceleration occurs for an object in free fall
Thermal exansion
An increase in length of volume of a substance as a result of an increase in temperature
Torque
The primary motivator for rotational movement that combines force, lever arm, and the angle between them; measured in N·m
Traveling wave
A wave that propagates through a medium with changes in the locations of crests and troughs
Translation
Motion through space without rotation
Transverse wave
A wave that propagates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of oscillation
Turbulent flow
Fluid movement that does not follow parallel streamlines; has back flow, eddies, and swirls
Twin study
A research design used heavily in psychology to differentiate between genetic and environmental effects
Ultrasonic
Above the frequencies that humans can hear
Ultrasound
A treatment and diagnostic modality using ultrasonic waves for medical purposes
Ultraviolet
A region of the electromagnetic spectrum that is not visible; primarily responsible for the damaging effects of sunlight on skin
Upright
Describes an image that is the same orientation as the object; in single-mirror or single-lens systems, upright images are always virtual
Vaporization
The phase transition from solid to gas; also called boiling or evaporation
Vector
A mathematical quantity that has both magnitude and direction
Velocity
The rate of change in the displacement of an object; measured in m/s
Venturi effect
Describes the relationship between the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation; as cross-sectional area of a tube decreases, the speed of the fluid increases, and the pressure exerted on the walls of the tube decreases
Virtual
Describes an image on the opposite side of a lens of mirror as the refracted or reflected light; in single-mirror or single-lens, virtual images are always upright
Viscosity
A measure of the resistance to flow in a fluid
Wavelength
The distance between two corresponding points of successive cycles in a waveform, measured in meters
Weight
The force of gravity acting on an object
Work
A function of the applied force and the distance through which it is applied of the pressure and volume changes in a gas system; work is the use of energy to accomplish something and is measured in joules (J)
Work-energy theorem
States that net work is equal to the change in energy (usually kinetic energy) of an object
X-rays
A type of electromagnetic radiation; primarily used for medical imaging
Resonance
Oscillation at maximum amplitude as the result of a periodically applied force at the natural (resonant) frequency of an object
Resultant
The sum, difference, or product of vector mathematics; also refers to the sum or difference of two waves
