Physical - Water and carbon cycles Flashcards
1
Q
What is a system?
A
A set of interrelated components working together
2
Q
What are inputs (in systems)?
A
Material or energy entering a system
3
Q
What are outputs (in systems)?
A
Material or energy moving out of a system
4
Q
What are stores in systems?
A
A part of a system where energy/mass is stored or transformed
5
Q
What are flows and transfers?
A
Links or relationships between components in a system
6
Q
What are elements/components (in terms of systems)?
A
Parts of a system
7
Q
What are attributes in systems?
A
Characteristics of elements in system (eg volume, temp, colour etc)
8
Q
What are relationships in systems?
A
Links between the elements and attributes of systems (cause and effect)
9
Q
What is an open system?
A
A system whereby inputs and outputs move through a system
10
Q
What is a closed system?
A
A system whereby energy is transferred, but not matter
11
Q
What is an example of a closed system?
A
Earth (mostly) - energy from sun or radioactive decay of earths core is transferred but mass is conserved
12
Q
What is an isolated system?
A
A system which has no interactions with anything outside the system boundary
13
Q
Give 2 examples of inputs of the global water cycle
A
- Precipitation
2. Interbasin transfer
14
Q
Give 2 examples of outputs of the global water cycle
A
- Transpiration
2. Interbasin transfers (again)
15
Q
What is dynamic equilibrium?
A
The balanced state of a system, when inputs and outputs are equal.
16
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
Where the effects of a change in a system are amplified by changes to inputs/outputs/processes.
The state of the system moves away from dynamic equilibrium.
17
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
Where the effects of a change in a system are nullified by changes to inputs/outputs/processes.
The system moves closer to a state of dynamic equilibrium.
18
Q
What are the 4 (6) subsystems on earth?
A
- Lithosphere (includes pedosphere)
- Hydrosphere (includes cryosphere)
- Atmosphere
- Biosphere
19
Q
Where is permafrost found?
A
In areas of tundra in N. America and Euroasia
20
Q
Compared to CO2, how much methane is there stored in the permafrost?
A
Double the amount of CO2 currently in the atmosphere
21
Q
By how much have temperatures in northern Alaska increased each year since 2005?
A
By 0.1C each year
22
Q
Why is Climate Change a concern for Western Europe?
A
Upsets the dynamic equilibrium of the North Atlantic Thermohaline Circulation system because of more cold fresh water entering the north Atlantic. This could stop the gulf stream
23
Q
What % albedo does sea ice have?
A
80% albedo, very high
24
Q
How much of the water on Earth is in the oceans?
A
97%
25
How much of the water on Earth is in the glaciers?
2%
26
How many times has the water we drink been drunk before?
7 times!
27
How much water on Earth is freshwater?
2.5%
28
How much freshwater on Earth is accessible?
1.2% (not ice)
29
How many valley glaciers are there in the Himalayas?
15,000
30
Why is the melting of sea ice not a concern? But why is it useful?
Sea ice consists of sea water, so it does not contribute to sea level rise. However, the melting of sea ice is a very good indicator of climate change at the poles.
31
What are ice shelves?
Platforms of ice that form where freshwater ice sheets or glaciers move into the ocean
32
What are ice sheets?
A mass of glacial land extending over 50,000 km2
33
How much volume does the Antarctic ice sheet make up?
30 million km3
34
What is the slow water cycle?
Water percolates/infiltrates deep into the lithosphere (bedrock) and is stored for >1000 years
35
What is the fast water cycle?
The familiar version of the water cycle. Water evaporates and precipitates
36
Why are some of the largest Aquifers found beneath the Sahara?
They as "fossil" aquifers - remnants of previous, cooler climates
37
How much of the surface of the Earth is covered by oceans?
72%
38
What are the 4 types of terrestrial water?
1. Bio water
2. Soil water
3. Surface water
4. Groundwater
39
How many lakes there there in Canada?
3 million
40
How much of the Arctic is classified as wetland?
60%
41
Name a plant which unusually uses water for strength, not storage.
The Baobab tree
42
How much of La Paz' water supply comes from glaciers?
15% (up to 30% during dry season)
43
How much electricity in Columbia relies upon the melting of glaciers?
70% (hydropower)
44
What are aerosols?
Small particles of salt and dust (condensation nuclei)
45
What happens when the air becomes saturated with water?
Clouds form (cannot hold any more water vapour)
46
What is the condensation level?
The height at which DEW POINT is reached and clouds form
47
What is orographic (relief) rainfall?
Air mass containing water rises over higher terrain and condenses. Rain clouds form above orographic clouds and rain drops fall and get larger as they combine.
48
How does frontal rain occur?
At a cold front, cold air advances beneath a warm front, causing the warm air to rise and cool.
Leads to heavy rainfall and thunderstorms in summer
49
What is the definition of Albedo?
The reflection coefficient - a measure of how reflective a surface is
50
For how long is water stored in shallow groundwater stores?
100-200 years. 10,000 years for deep aquafers
51
For how long is water stored in glacial stores?
20-100 years
52
What is accumulation?
The build up of ice mass following persistent snowfall
53
What is ablation?
The loss of ice mass through melting
54
Why do phytoplankton accumulate behind icebergs?
Icebergs carry nutrients needed for organisms, such as iron.
55
How do icebergs get nutrients needed for phytoplankton growth?
Glacial erosion, picking up rocks
56
How much land did ice cover 18,000 years ago?
1/3 land in the last ice age
57
How much lower was sea level during the last glacial period?
100 metres lower
58
At the peak of previous intergalcial periods, how much higher were sea levels worldwide?
Up to 50 metres high
59
What is channel flow?
The flow of water through a drainage basin system in rivers
60
What is stem flow?
The flow of water through a drainage basin system in plant stems/ xylems
61
What is a drainage basin?
The total area drained by a river and its tributaries, bordered by the watershed.
62
What is a watershed?
Either:
A shed full of water
OR
The edge of a drainage basin (highest land normally)
63
How much of the world's water is stored in the Greenland ice sheet?
8% of the global freshwater
64
How deep is the Greenland ice sheet?
2km deep
65
If all of the Greenland ice sheet melted by how much would sea levels rise?
By 7.2 metres
66
When did an early ice melting event occur in Greenland?
In mid-April 2016 and 2012
67
Why is snowfall important in the water cycle?
Fresh(er) snow cover has an albedo of 90% whereas older snow cover contains darker sediment, accelerating melting of ice sheets
68
How much of the worlds population live in a coastal zone?
1/3 global population
69
How long is the River Wye?
215km
70
What factors of the river Wye drainage basin increase river discharge?
- Steep upland slopes
- No woodlands in upper course
- Ditches have been dug
- Impermeable mudstones in upper course
71
What is water transfer?
The movement of water through a drainage basin system along tributaries or even man-made ditches and drains
72
When does the RIver Wye have surplus storage?
In the winter months (highest in January)
73
What is soil moisture depletion?
When a water store is used by plants
74
What is a soil moisture deficit?
When there is insufficient water for plants
75
What is soil moisture recharge?
When soil water begins to increase (but still a deficit) following rainfall
76
What is the equation for calculating water balance?
```
P = O + E + S
Precipitation = Runoff + Evapotranspiration + Storage
```
77
Give an example of a flood event on the River Wye?
Herefordshire floods 2007
78
When did a drought occur on the River Wye?
In 2012 and 2018
79
How low did water levels on the river Wye get in July 2018? Why?
'Lowest levels in 30 years'. Leisure and tourism, close proximity to Hereford and Birmingham where there is more demand for water, thus more extraction
80
How much of the water stored in the Atmosphere was transferred by evapotranspiration?
10%
81
What is discharge?
The volume and speed of water at a give point on a river
82
What is important to note about discharge?
It is NOT the same at all points on a river - only a SNAPSHOT
83
Why does discharge increase downstream on rivers?
There is greater volume due to water being inputted into the river systems from surrounding tributaries. This also increases the velocity of the water
84
Why is studying discharge important?
Gives insight into:
- Flash flood warnings
- 'Slow' flooding
- Erosion rates
- Stresses on infrastructure along rivers (mills, bridges etc)
85
What is a river regime?
The variability of river discharge throughout a year (a graph showing discharge over a year)
86
Where is discharge in rivers consistently measured in the UK?
At 1,500 drainage basin network stations
87
Why is discharge measured at so many locations in the UK?
The UK has a very variable climate, topography, geology and land use
88
How much rainfall does some parts of Scotland receive in a year?
5 metres. This highlights the importance of multiple drainage basin network stations in the UK because some parts of Essex receive very little rainfall.
89
What are the 6 components of a storm hydrograph?
1. Peak rainfall
2. Lag time
3. Rising limb
4. Peak discharge
5. Falling limb
6. Normal/base flow
90
What is "peak rainfall" on storm hydrographs?
The hour with the greatest rainfall during a strom
91
What is "lag time" on a storm hydrograph?
The period of time between peak rainfall and discharge - the amount of time taken for water to travel into a river from across a drainage basin
92
What are the "rising" and "falling" limbs on a storm hydrograph?
The period of time when discharge rises and falls respectively
93
What is base/normal flow on storm hydrographs?
The discharge/flow along a river under normal conditions
94
What is a soil moisture graph?
A graph to show variation in soil moisture over a year depending on rates of precipitation and evapotranspiration as inputs and outputs respectively of the system
95
Name some physical factors which affect storm hydrographs?
- Size and shape of drainage basins
- Drainage density
- Relief
- Duration and intensity of rainfall
- Type of precipitation
- Permeability of rocks
- Vegetation cover
- Soil texture
[all regarding drainage basins]
96
Name some human factors which affect storm hydrographs
- Deforestation
- Growth of urban areas
- Dams
- Ploughing
- Other agricultural practices
97
How does a large drainage basin affect storm hydrographs?
More precipitation "captured" so peak discharge is higher
98
What shape of drainage basin causes the flashiest storm hydrographs?
Circular drainage basins - shorter "radius" to a river
99
What is meant by drainage density?
The number of tributaries in a drainage basin (more rivers = higher drainage density)
100
How can the length of rainfall affect storm hydrographs?
Long-duration rainfall causes a more flashy flood hydrograph with a higher peak discharge
101
How can the type of precipitation affect storm hydrographs?
Rain = short lag time.
Snow = long lag time because snow takes time (days-months) to melt.
If the same volume of water is inputted into the system the peak flow will be the same.
102
How has the growth of urban areas affected storm hydrographs?
- More impervious and impermeable surfaces
- Less green areas and vegetation to intercept rainfall
Interception and infiltration decreases, runoff increases
103
How many hectares of Garden have been converted into impermeable areas in London between 1998 and 2006?
300 ha/year
104
How can a closed dam affect a flood hydrograph?
Flow is regulated so only normal flow occurs when closed
105
If a dam is opened what happens to a storm hydrograph?
Becomes flashy because water quickly enters the river
106
How do agricultural practices affect storm hydrographs?
- Cattle trample on fields which can compact the soil so infiltration is reduced and runoff increases
- Ploughing can loosen the soil, increasing rates of infiltration, however grooves channel water, increasing runoff and water transfer dramatically
107
What is the name of the flood management project being undertaken at Pickering, Yorkshire?
"Slowing the flow at Pickering"
108
What are the aims of the 'slowing the flow at Pickering' project?
To demonstrate how better land management can help manage flooding using soft engineering strategies
109
How many times in the last 20 years has Pickering been flooded?
4 times
| 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007
110
How much £ damage did the 2007 Pickering flood cause?
£7 million
111
Why is the management at Pickering easy to do?
A third of the land in the drainage basin is public owned so it is easy to implement strategies and investigate how effective they are.
112
By how much has the chances of a flood occurring in Pickering fallen following 'slowing the flow project'?
From 25% chance of a flood in a given year to a 4% chance
113
How have locals responded to the 'slowing the flow at Pickering' project?
The response has generally been positive and local landowners and farmers have embraced the concept of working with natural processes
114
Where is Pickering located?
The southern boundary of the North York Moors National park, 17km away from the water shed of the river Derwent drainage basin
115
Where is the source of the River Wye?
In the Welsh mountains
116
Where is the mouth of the RIver Wye?
Chepstow in Gloucestershire
117
What two rivers meet at a confluence in Pickering?
The Pickering Beck and Gundale Beck (greatly increases discharge and flood risk)
118
What is the land use of the drainage basin upstream of Pickering?
- Mostly arable farmland at Oak Tree Farm
- Some sheep-grazed land
- Moorland at the watershed
119
What is the total area of the drainage basin upstream of Pickering?
20 sq. km
120
When, on average does Pickering beck experience highest rates of discharge, according the river regime?
In December (an average of 25 cumecs)
121
What was the average discharge on Pickering Beck between 1973 and 2007?
14.4 cumecs (gradually been increasing)
122
What is the all-time highest discharge on Pickering Beck? When did it occur?
40 cumecs, 2002 - caused flooding in Pickering
123
What 3 techniques did the 'slowing the flow at Pickering project' adopt?
1. Construction of low-level bunds
2. Creation (reestablishment) of riparian and floodplain woodland
3. Restoring large, woody debris dams
124
What is a bund? (A technique used in Pickering)
A 'bund' is a stone/earth embankment used to hold back water during times of excess rainfall
125
Where have bunds been used in Pickering?
At Newtondale, on the Pickering beck
126
What is the flood storage capacity of the bunds used in Pickering?
120,000m3
127
What was taken into account when choosing which type of tree to plant in the Pickering drainage basin?
The soil quality was very poor so trees which intercepted water and had roots which increased the permeability of the soil were chosen
128
How much riparian woodland has been planted at Pickering?
30 hectares
129
(Pickering)
| Why have large, woody dams (LWDs) been removed from rivers in the last century?
Landowners feared that LWDs could affect fish populations or human infrastructure
130
Why are large woody dams being used in Pickering?
- Increase flood storage
| - Reconnect streams in the floodplain
131
How many large woody dams are there being used at Pickering?
160 LWDs being used
132
Has the 'slowing the flow' project at Pickering worked?
+ Oxford Uni assessment and storm hydrograph shows a reduction in flooding
- The project has not been proven to withstand flooding of the same magnitude as previous events (eg 2007)
133
What are some major benefits of the 'slowing the flow at Pickering' project?
1. Peak discharge decreased by 20%
2. Museum on 'Beck Isle' saved
3. Lag times increased
4. Homes saved from future flood events
134
Name 6 factors which affect the water cycle
1. Seasonal changes
2. Land-use change
3. Deforestation
4. Water abstraction
5. Desertification
6. Soil Drainage
135
How much rainforest in SA has been converted to cattle pasture?
10%
136
Why is water abstracted by humans?
For use in agriculture, industry or domestic purposes
137
What 3 effects can occur if large amounts of water is extracted from aquifers?
1. Sinking water tables (leading to more dry rivers)
2. Empty wells
3. Intrusion of salt water
138
Give an example of a country which can no longer use groundwater for domestic purposes because of salt water intrusion
Malta
139
How low did water in the London aquifer get in the 1960s?
88 metres below sea level - lowest levels ever
140
By how much has the London Aquifer recovered since the 1960s? Why?
Recovered at a rate of 3m/year because brewery industry closed down in the capital
141
What has been set up in London to control water levels?
GARDIT
| General Aquifer Research, Development and Investigation Team
142
By how many metres have water levels in the London Aquifer fallen in East London? Why is this of concern?
Fallen by 7 metres since 2000. The area is at risk from saline intrusion, especially with eustatic changes + sea level rise
143
What factors indirectly cause desertification?
- Population pressures
- Policies
- International trade
144
What is desertification?
- A type of land degradation that can occur in dryland ecosystems
- Initiated by humans, then accelerated by natural processes
145
How much land in Brazil is threatened by desertification?
200,000 sq. miles
146
What is the economic cost of desertification in Brazil?
$300 million/year lost
147
What percentage of land in Mexico is vulnerable to desertification?
70%
148
How much lowland forest will remain in Borneo by 2030?
33% - the rest has been lost through deforestation
149
Why does deforestation have global consequences in the water cycle?
- Rainforests control global precipitation patterns
- Also release Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) which cool the planet.
Thus deforestation causes positive feedback loops
150
Why is transpiration in rainforests important?
- Maintains localised humidity
- Maintains cooler temperatures
- 100 litres of water transpired is equivalent to 2 air cons worth of cooling
151
What are the impacts of water abstraction?
- Alters river regimes
- Lowers water tables
- Saltwater intrusion
All make water sources unsustainable
152
What is the largest store of carbon?
Marine sediments and rocks
153
How much carbon is there stored in marine sediments?
100,000 GtC
154
What does GtC stand for?
Gigatonnes of carbon
155
How much carbon is there stored in oceans?
40,000 GtC, second largest carbon store
156
What is the longest store of carbon?
Marine sediments - takes millions of years to form
157
How much carbon is there stored in the atmosphere?
750 GtC
158
What is a carbon sink?
A carbon store which absorbs more carbon than it releases
159
What is a carbon source?
A carbon store which releases more carbon than it absorbs
160
What is carbon sequestration?
The capture of CO2 from the atmosphere before shortly being released or stored in the long term
161
Why is less carbon stored in the southern hemisphere?
Droughts are more common so there is less vegetation present to sequestrate carbon dioxide.
Causes the Keeling Curve to fluctuate
162
Where is the majority of 'forest carbon' stored?
25% in Russian forests
20% in The Amazon
163
How much carbon is there stored in peat?
250 GtC
164
Where does the majority of ocean carbon accumulate? Why?
In the deep layers of the ocean because there is less penetration from sunlight which would otherwise cause photosynthesis
165
What are 'fluxes' in the carbon cycle?
Measurements of the rate of flow of Carbon between stores. Measured in g/year
166
What is the fast organic carbon cycle?
The cycle of carbon which lasts months-centuries involving living components
167
What is an example of a fast NON-organic carbon cycle?
Ocean to atmosphere exchanges
168
How slow is the slow carbon cycle?
Very slow. Takes millions of years
169
What are the 3 general scales of the carbon cycle?
1. Plant
2. Sere
3. Continental
170
What is a sere?
An ecological succession which sequesters carbon oer time
171
What is the final stage in ecological succession?
Climatic Climax vegetation - the system is in equilibrium
172
What is the energy store in plants?
Starch
173
Name three factors in the slow carbon cycle.
1. Natural Carbon Sequestration
2. Burial and compaction
3. Chemical weathering of carbon-rich rocks
174
How do colder temperatures affect CO2 release from plants?
Less growth occurs so less CO2 is released
175
How do colder temperatures affect CO2 release from oceans?
Increased capacity to adsorb carbon from the atmosphere, so more is sequestered, less released.
However there are also less phytoplankton, so less CO2 is absorbed
176
How do climatic events affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
Droughts and floods increase or decrease vegetation, so more or less carbon absorbed respectively
177
How does deforestation affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
Less trees, so less photosynthesis occurs. Also reduces soil carbon content (as more erosion)
178
How does agriculture affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
Fertilisers cause soils to loose orgainic content of carbon.
Some agricultural practices (cattle and rice) increase CH4 emissions
179
How can diseases affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
Can cause damage to forests, so less CO2 absorbed by photosynthesis
180
How do natural hazards affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
wildfires and volcanoes transfer vast quantities of carbon
181
How does cement production affect the carbon cycle (as a short-term change)?
Processing limestone into cement is a major anthropogenic short term change to the carbon cycle
182
What proportion of Scotland's emissions came peat fires in 2019?
A single moorland fire in Flow Country caused GhG emissions in Scotland to double
183
How old is the Amazon rainforest?
55 million years old
184
Why are tropical rainforests better than other types of rainforest?
- Tropical rainforests make up 50% of all forests on Earth
- However 70% of total leaf area is in Tropical Rainforests
This means that more carbon can be stored per unit area in Tropical Rainforests than elsewhere
185
How much of the global soil carbon store is found in the Amazon?
27%
186
How many different tree species are there in the Amazon?
16,000 tree species
187
What proportion of the tree species in the Amazon dominate carbon storage?
1% (only 182 species)
188
What proportion of anthropogenic CO2 emissions come from cement production?
8%
189
How much CO2 did Mt. St. Helens eruption release?
10 million tonnes in 9 hours.
It takes humans 2.5 hours to emit the same quantity
190
Compared to humans, how much CO2 do volcanic eruptions transfer into the atmosphere?
1.2% of anthropogenic CO2
191
How much CO2 do humans emit each year?
30 billion tonnnes
192
Where is Lake Nyos?
In northwest Cameroon
193
What happened at lake Nyos?
- Lake situated 80km above a pool of magma
- CO2 is transferred from the lithosphere into the hydrosphere through fishers in the rock
- Landslide in 1986 caused disolved CO2 at the bottom of the lake to be transferred into the air
- The dense CO2 travelled downhill towards villages, killing 1800 people
194
When was the lake Nyos disaster?
1986
195
How many people dies in the Lake Nyos disaster?
1800 people
196
What do volcanic eruptions transfer from the lithosphere to the atmosphere? What effect does this have?
- CO2 and SO2 released
- SO2 has a cooling effect because reflects long wave radiation (short-term warming)
- CO2 causes long-term warming
197
Name 3 natural changes in the carbon cycle
1. Wildfires
2. Natural climate changes
3. Volcanoes
198
How much land is burnt by wildfires each year?
4 million sq. km on average
199
How much CO2 do wildfires release each year?
> 1 billion tonnes CO2
200
How are established forests considered a carbon sink?
- CO2 sequestrated from the atmosphere
- Plants also respire, releasing CO2
- Net gain in CO2 absorbed
- Forests die + decompose -> CO2 released
- Mature forests block sunlight on forest floor so more burial of plant material (sink)
201
Do wildfires cause a net gain in atmospheric CO2?
- CO2 is released during the fire
- Plants recolonise area affected, CO2 is absorbed
- But vegetation is less dense so more decomposition occurs, CO2 released
Thus long-term +ve feedback
202
What are the natural cycles which affect climate called?
The Milankovitch cycles
203
What do the Milankovich cycles explain?
Determines the past earth climate and subsequently CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere
204
What are the Milankovich cycles?
A series of cycles which can affect the astrophysical state of the earth system in relation to its orbital path
205
What processes do the Milankovich cycles involve?
- Eccentricity
- Precession
- Axial tilt
206
What explains the rise of atmospheric CO2 after a temperature increase in past climates?
The Milankovich cycles.
The temperature increase causes more wildfires or transfer of CO2 from oceans to the atmosphere
+ve feedback (MAJOR)
207
What percentage of post-glacial warming have humans caused?
>90% human activity
208
How much CO2 did the 2015 Indonesian wildfires release?
An entire UK yearly CO2 emissions
209
How many people died from smoke inhalation in the 2015 Indonesian wildfires?
100,000 deaths
210
What caused the Indonesian wildfires in 2015?
Forest clearance for palm oil production
211
Why were the 2015 Indonesian wildfires so severe?
The peatlands were drained leading to "tinderbox" conditions - causing worst wildfires since 1997
212
What proportion of Indonesia's GhG emissions in 2015 came from wildfires?
63% of total emissions
213
What is the Quaternary period?
The last 2.8 million years (human earth)
214
How long does it take the average tree in the Amazon to sequester 1 tonne of CO2?
40 years
215
What is the process whereby carbon (calcium bicarbonate) is taken up by marine organisms to make shells called?
Marine Calcification
216
What is 'marine snow'?
The accumulation of dead biological organisms on the ocean floor (plankton and other organisms fall like snow)
217
Are oceans a net store (sink) of Carbon
Yes
218
TRUE OR FALSE
| As warming continues less carbon will be stored in the oceans.
TRUE
| The oceans could even become a carbon source because more CO2 released from oceans as temperatures rise
219
What is the process of marine organisms decaying in oceans called?
The biological ocean pump
220
How do human activities change the carbon cycle over time?
- Hydrocarbon extraction + burning
- Farming practices
- Deforestation
- Land use change (Urbanisation)
221
How much carbon is there stored in the Amazon?
80-120 billion tonnes
222
How much carbon does the Amazon sequester each year?
1-3 GtC/year (under normal/natural conditions)
223
How much less CO2 does the Amazon absorb now compared to in the 1990s?
1 Billion tonnes/year less than in 1990s
More CO2 is now produced by fossil fuels in SA than is sequestrated each year in the Amazon
224
How much of the Amazon rainforest was deforested 2000-2007?
20,000 sq. km each year
225
What proportion of Brazil's GhG emissions come from deforestation?
75%, Brazil is the 4th largest emitter of GhGs worldwide
226
How does "slash and burn" affect water in the Amazon?
- Less water retention in the upper 20cm of soil
- Evaporation of water in biomass
- More dark surfaces created
- More flashy storm hydrographs
- Only cumulus clouds - no rain
- Less condensation nuclei from plants
227
How does the removal of trees in the Amazon affect rainfall?
- Less evaporation
- Less condensation nuclei
- Less rain clouds form
228
How much more solar radiation do forests absorb compared to pastures?
11% more solar radiation
229
How much cooler are rainforests compared to pastures?
9 degrees C cooler
230
How much more moisture do rainforests hold compared to pastures?
15% more soil moisture
231
How much more humid are rainforests compared to pasture?
30% more humid
20% more precipitation
232
How many countries does the Amazon encompass?
9 countries in South America
233
How much water, on average, does the Amazon River discharge?
175,000 cumecs
234
What percentage of global freshwater entering oceans comes form the Amazon?
15%
235
How deep and wide is the Amazon river?
> 100 metres deep
| > 14km wide
236
How much rainfall does the Amazon receive each year?
2,300 mm
| Sometimes over 6,000 mm/ year
237
What percentage of the rainfall inputted into the Amazon rainforest system is outputted into the sea?
30%
| A negative feedback loops cycles the rest
238
By how much have temperatures of tropical rainforests increased every 10 years?
A 0.2 to 0.3 degree C increase every 10 years
239
By 2050 how much warmer could tropical rainforests be?
2-3 degrees C warmer
240
What has become more common in the Amazon due to climatic change?
More frequent temperature extremes
241
What changes concurring in the Amazon?
- Climate change
- Vegetation change
- Soil change
- Changes to rivers
242
How much vegetation has the amazon lost between 2000 and 2010?
A net loss of 3.6 million hectares / year between 2000 and 2010
243
What is the primary cause of vegetation change in the Amazon? Other causes?
Primary cause is deforestation
| Other cause is climate change
244
What % Amazon rainforest will die with a 2C temp increase due to climate change?
40%
245
What % Amazon rainforest will die with a 4C temp increase?
85%
246
How much carbon is there stored in the uppermost 50cm of soil in the Amazon?
4-9kg of carbon
247
How does deforestation affect the carbon stored in the soil in the Amazon?
Soils become exposed to rainfall and are weathered which releases CO2
248
What will deforestation do to rivers in the Amazon basin?
- Discharge increases in short term
- Less rainfall in long term - so less discharge in long term
- More flash flooding because less interception
- More silt in rivers, affecting wildlife and human populations
249
How will warmer waters affect rivers in the Amazon basin?
- Species killed off
- Dissolved oxygen escapes
- Temperature imbalance upon reaching the ocean
250
What national agreements are there in place to reduce negative impacts of change in the Amazon?
- Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation (ACTO)
- Latin American Technical Cooperation Network on Watershed Management (REDLEACH)
- TARAPOTO
251
What does the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organisation (ACTO) do to reduce damage in the Amazon?
- A legal document which acknowledges the flexible boundaries of the Amazon rainforest
- Integrates Amazon territories into national economies
- Enables conservation and economic growth to occur simultaneously
252
How does the REDLACH strategy mitigate the negative impacts of changes in the Amazon Rainforest?
- Focues on river basin manaement
- Also promotes sustainable development in the region
- Facilitates the spread of information, promoting tech companies
253
When was REDLACH (Amazon) established?
1980
254
When was TARAPOTO (Amazon) established?
1995
255
How does the TARAPOTO strategy mitigate the negative impacts of changes in the Amazon Rainforest?
- Defines the process of sustainable forest management
- Very holistic (ecological and soacil/cultural)
- Aims to develop sustainable forest management and development
256
What is the world's largest rainforest?
The Amazon rainforest
257
How many trees are there in the Amazon?
3 billion
258
What proportion of the world's biomass is there in the Amazon?
20%
259
How much area does the Amazon cover?
5.5 million km2
260
How much of the Amazon rainforest is in Brazil?
60% of area covered
261
What is the biotic pump?
The circulation of water in between the biosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere caused by the Amazon Rainforest
262
What weather phenominon occurs in the Amazon?
Low pressure is created by trees photosynthesising (mainly due to location on equator, though)
263
How much rainforest is deforested each year?
An area equivalent to the country of Panama
264
How much land mass on earth is forested?
A third
265
How many football pitches of forest is lost each minute?
40 football pitches each minute
266
Why are tropical rainforests targeted for deforestation?
The economies of countries in tropical regions rely upon natural resources for incomes
267
Why does deforestation occur?
- Urban growth
- Timber for commecial items
- Palm oil
- Cattle ranching
- Mining/ oil extraction
268
What are the two common methods of deforestation?
- Burning trees
| - Clear cutting (slash + burn)
269
What is clear cutting / slash and burn compared to?
"An ecological trauma that has no precedent in nature except of a major volcanic eruption"
270
How much CO2 does deforestation release into the atmosphere each year?
1 billion tonnes
271
How much CO2 do tropical rainforests sequester each year?
1.5 billion tonnes each year
272
TRUE or FALSE?
| Mature trees absorb more CO2 than young trees?
FALSE
| Young trees absorb more CO2 (to grow)
273
Where is the source of the river mole?
Rusper, W. Sussex
274
How do changes to the water cycle in the Amazon affect the carbon cycle?
- Deforestation causes less rainfall
- More drought conditions (+ve feedback)
- Less trees grow
- Less photosynthesis
275
What areas of major infrastructure does the River Mole travel near?
- Gatwick Airport (under the runway!)
- A24
- M25
- Dorking town centre
276
What is the name of the point where the river mole passes through the north downs Anticline?
"Dorking Gap"
277
How long is the River Mole?
80km
278
What is the area of the River Mole drainage basin?
500km2
279
What is the mean discharge on the River Mole?
2.4 cumecs
280
What was the highest rate of discharge on the River Mole? When did this occur?
80 cumecs in 2000 floods
281
Name 2 impacts of the flooding in 2000 on the River Mole
1. M25 was closed
| 2. 200 residents were evauated
282
What is the average total rainfall in the River Mole catchment per year?
750mm/ year
283
What was the worst flood event on the River Mole?
1968 flood, discharge of 240 cumecs on the lower course of the river
284
What is a major issue with flooding on rivers like the Mole?
The rivers are perceived to be insignificant and therefore do not receive sufficient public attention
285
What were the social impacts of flooding on the Mole in 2013-2014 event?
- Some villages without power for 3 days
- Morrison's car park in Reigate was flooded
- Telecoms damage
- 27 guests at hotels rescued
286
What were the economic impacts of flooding on the Mole in 2013-2014 event?
- Power failure at Gatwick caused delays
- 100 flights at Gatwick cancelled on Xmas eve
- Hotels flooded
- A24 and railways closed
- 40 homes flooded
287
What are the 4 types of flooding that have occurred n the River Mole drainage basin?
1. Fluvial flooding
2. Surface water flooding
3. Groundwater flooding
4. Dam breeching
288
What is fluvial flooding?
Flooding which occurs when rivers burst banks
289
What is the storm hydrograph of the RIver Mole like?
Flashy (compared to the similar River Kennet)
290
How many properties in Surrey (Mole case study) are at risk from surface water flooding?
40,000 properties
291
How does surface water flooding occur?
When the capacity of drains becomes overwhelmed
292
How many dams are there in the Mole catchment?
8 dams including at Tilgate Lake, Crawley
293
Give an example of flooding caused by a dam collapse in the UK.
Whaley Bridge, August 2019
294
What are 'static' flood risk factors?
Factors which affect flooding which do not change much, eg rock type
295
What are 'fluid' flood risk factors?
Factors which affect flooding which vary. eg human developments
296
What percentage of the lithology of the River Mole Drainage basin has low permeability?
60%
297
What shape is the River Mole drainage basin?
'Teardrop' shaped
| - Causes more falshy hydrographs in the upper course of the river due to rapid runoff
298
Why does the intensity of rainfall vary on the river mole?
The North Downs create orographic rainfall
299
How much rain fell in the River Mole drainage basin in the storms of 2013-2014?
70mm in 24 hours
300
What is Effluent discharge?
Runoff due to urban developments
301
How much water does Gatwick Airport extract each year?
1 million cubic metres
302
How short was the lag time on the River Mole during the 2013-2014 event? Why?
10 hours
| The ground was saturated and there are many impermeable surfaces in the drainage basin
303
What management strategy is being used on the River Mole?
The Upper Mole Flood Alleviation Scheme
304
How much does the Upper Mole Flood Alleviation scheme cost?
£15 million
305
What methods has the Upper Mole Flood Alleviation Scheme adopted?
1. Securing Dams
2. Retention Ponds
3. Weirs on lower course at Molesey
306
Where have dams been improved in the River Mole drainage basin?
Tilgate reservoir has a higher dam wall
307
Where have retention ponds been used in the River Mole drainage basin?
- Worth Farm, near to the M25
- Near Gatwick Airport
- Manor Royal and the A23
308
How much has Gatwick invested in schemes to reduce flooding from the River Mole?
£4 million in a Gatwick Greenspace project
309
How much water can the detention ponds at Manor Royal in the River Mole drainage basin store?
- 180,000 cumecs of water
| - Also provides habitats
310
Give an example of soft engineering on the River Mole
Moors Project at Redhill Marshes
311
Who manages the Moors Project at Redhill Marshes?
Surrey wildlife trust and volunteers
312
What other strategies are there in place to reduce the impact of flooding on the River Mole?
Flood warnings and alerts, such as Environment agency identifying areas most risk to the 4 types of flooding
313
Why are figures on hydrocarbon fuel extraction misleading?
1971 86% energy was from fossil fuels
2013 82% was from fossil fuels
```
1971 5GtE (gigatonnes energy) fossil fuels
2013 11GtE fossil fuels
```
The relative value has dropped but the absolute value has risen
314
How much anthropogenic CO2 does vegetation sequate?
50%
315
When is the 'start' of the industrial revolution?
1750
316
How much CO2 does land use change cause?
30%
317
What are 3 major sources of carbon in agriculture?
1) Fertilisers (use 4% worlds energy)
2) Livestock and CH4
3) Rice and bean crops in LEDCs
318
What proportion of methane released globally comes from rice paddies?
20%
319
What proportion of the world eats rice?
50% as a primary food source
320
What is an example of agriculture and the carbon cycle?
Shimpling Farm, Bury St Edmunds
321
What percentage of carbon emissions at Shimpling Farm do the 250 sheep produce?
6.6%
322
What percentage of carbon emissions at Shimpling Farm have been sequated?
40%
323
How much carbon can 0.1% organic matter in the soil take in?
4500 tonnes CO2
324
What percentage of agricultural GhG emissions occurred in Asia?
44%
325
What scale of effects does Deforestation have?
A local, Regional and Global effect
326
What percentage of carbon emissions worldwide does deforestation cause?
20%
327
What does deforestation do to the carbon cycle?
- Trees are a carbon store
- A sere system, with many plants is a sink
- Trees decay and return carbon to the soils
Deforestation upsets the dynamic equilibrium, becoming a source of carbon
328
Why is deforestation of Tropical rainforests worst than in temperate forests?
- The humid conditions in rainforests cause more Carbon to be stored in soils (a sink)
- Deforestation leaves the ground exposed, and weathering and erosion removes carbon
329
How much forest is cut down each year?
13 million Ha
330
How much land area do urban areas cover?
2% total land area
331
How do urban areas affect the carbon cycle? (5 points)
- Cement for building construction
- Vegetation removed
- Impermeable surfaces cut of soil carbon source
- More industries which burn fossil fuels
- Transport
332
What percentage of global carbon emissions are urban areas of >0.5 million inhabitants responsible for?
47% 2012
50% 2030
333
Will urban areas contribute to moree GhG emissions in the future?
Quite likely, YES
- Asia is still 'rural' as 52% of population live in urban areas
- Urbanisation is yet to peak in Asia
- More GhG emissions expected
334
How can the effect of urban environments on the carbon cycle be mitigated?
- Use more sustainable materials, industries and modes of transport
- Plant more trees
- Use less concrete
335
Define carbon budget
The maximum amount of carbon that can be released into the atmosphere without cause a given temperature rise
336
What is the major issue with carbon budgets?
Does not account for carbon sequestration (which would reduce carbon stored in the atmosphere)
337
What is the carbon budget to prevent 2 degrees C warming?
1000 GtC or 1 trillion petagrams carbon
338
How much of the 1000 gigaton carbon budget is used? How much is left?
575 GtC used, 425 GtC left
339
Why is 2 degrees C warming the temperature threshold of the carbon budget?
It is seen as a 'tipping point' - if exceeded positive feedback loops will cause further warming
340
What is the main source of anthropogenic CO2 today? What about before 1950?
Nowadays fossil fuels
| Before 1950 it was land use change, highlighting the effects of globalisation
341
Where is the anthropogenic carbon now stored since 1870?
41% atmospheric stores
31% terrestrial (litho- and bio-sphere) stores
28% Hydrospheric stores
342
What is the biggest flux/transfer in the carbon cycle?
Photosynthesis 120PgC/year
343
Why are trees important in the carbon cycle despite being the smallest store?
Vegetation links atmospheric carbon and carbon stores in the lithosphere and hydrosphere
344
What is the energy input for the earth system?
Short wave solar radiation
345
How much short wave solar radiation is absorbed by the earth's surface?
50%
346
In what form does the earth emit solar radiation?
As LONG wave radiation (infrared)
Short in, long out (as energy is lost)
347
How much longwave radiation goes into space? What happens to the rest?
10%
90% reaches greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, half of which returns back to earth
348
Name one non-carbon containing greenhouse gas.
NO2
349
Without a natural greenhouse gas effect, what would happen?
The world would be 30 degrees C colder (carbon cycle and life on earth link)
350
What is the Keeling Curve?
A graph to show CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere recorded at Hawaii since 1960
351
What would happen if 10% of the Permafrost were to thaw?
Temperatures could rise by 0.7 degrees by 2100
352
By how much more could plants grow with 2x atmospheric CO2 concentration?
Up to 70% more plant growth
353
How does vegetation growth act as a negative feedback loop with global warming? What is the issue with this?
Rates of photosynthesis increase with warmer temperatures
However, warmer temperatures will reduce water availability in warmer climates and desertification will increase
354
How can vegetation act as a positive feedback loop with global warming?
More wildfires like those in Indonesia, Australia (this year) and California (last year in Paradise)
Vegetation is destroyed, so less carbon sequestrated
355
What is the albedo of water?
<7% on average as waves change angle of reflection
356
What is the thermohaline circulation system also called?
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
357
What is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change
358
What is Radiative forcing?
A measure of the influence of a factor in altering the balance of incoming and outgoing energy in the atmospheric system
359
What statistic highlights changes in the carbon cycle system over time?
500 million years ago atmospheric CO2 concentrations were 20x the current level
360
What percentage of the European population are at risk from higher sea levels?
40% of the European population
361
How will climate change affect Africa? (SEEP)
S - Water shortages and sacristy
P - More political instability and wars such as Darfur conflict
Ec - Crop yeild reduced by >50% 2020
En - Coral reefs and mangroves degraded affecting livelihoods. Coastal communities vulnerable to erosion
362
How will climate change affect Asia? (SEEP)
En - Glaciers in Hymalayas will melt, disrupting water supplies for >10 years
S - Sundarbans vulnerable to fluvial and coastal flooding
363
When will the Great Barrier Reef disappear due to climate change?
2030, affecting tourism and fishing
N.B International trade with larger container vessels have also contributed to this
364
How will climate change affect Europe? (SEEP)
S - Unsustainable urban infrastructure to cope with warmer weather, elderly die
En - Forest and Peatland fires, +ve feedback
En - Western Europe could become colder
P/Ec - more climate refugees from Africa
365
How will climate change affect S. America? (SEEP)
En - Amazon will become a Savannah
| En - Bio-pump disrupted, so local and global water cycle disrupted
366
How will climate change affect N. America? (SEEP)
En - Les snowpack in the Rockies, so more flooding in Spring due to shorter lag times
S - Droughts and water shortages in LA and other urban areas
367
In what way could the melting of the permafrost cause a NEGATIVE feedback loop?
- Permafrost has a very high nutrient content
- More plants will grow, sere established
- More terrestrial (bio) sequestration with photosynthesis
- Could counter-act CH4 and CO2 released
368
What does positive feedback do with dynamic equilibrium?
The system moves AWAY from a state of dynamic equilibrium
369
In what 5 ways are the water and carbon cycles linked?
1) Oceans (dissolved C)
2) Rainwater and carbolic acid
3) C and H2O released by volcanoes, industry, respiration
4) Carbonation (weathering)
5) CO2 and CH4 in ice
370
How important are oceans?
VERY
- Oceans release latent heat upon evaporation, chemical energy store
- Rain fall patterns
- Weathering of calcium carbonate rocks
371
What percentage of the greenhouse effect is attributed to CO2? What are the other gasses?
CO2 = only 20% of greenhouse effect
Water vapor = 50%
Cloud cover = 25%
372
Why won't more water vapor in the atmosphere necessarily result in a -ve feedback loop?
- Short wave solar radiation is inputted into the earth system
- Water molecules do not reflect this
- Water does reflect long wave radiation back to earth
373
Even if GhG emissions are halted immediately, why will warming continue?
- Oceans will take up the heat and store the energy
| - CO2 in the atmosphere will take >50 years to degrade
374
Even if GhG emissions are halted immediately, how much warming will there be by 2100?
0.6 degree temp rise
375
How will transfers of water from cryospheric to hydrosheric stores affect life on earth? (+ve and -ve)
```
+ve = more trade via northern sea route in Arctic
-ve = Weather patterns change in western Europe and N. America
```
376
Why will phytoplankton cause POSITIVE feedback?
- Phytoplankton secrete a chemical called DMS
- DMS is a condensation nuclei
- More clouds = more long wave radiation trapped
- Enhanced greenhouse effect
377
How much carbon is there stored in Thurobund bay, Denmark?
Seagrass at Thurobund can store 27 tonnes carbon per m2, much higher than 11 tonnes elsewhere
378
Why is seagrass important (carbon and coasts)
Coasts = A natural defence, dissipating wave energy and currents
Carbon = 1/5 of all oceanic carbon sequestration, despite not covering much area at all worldwide
379
By how much have seagrass meadows decreased since 1990?
90% in Denmark
30% worldwide
380
How much carbon do Kelp forests sequestrate?
>600 million tonnes worldwide (2x UK GhC emissions)
381
How has inappropriate coastal management affected the Kelp forests off the Sussex coast?
Sediment has been dumped offshore as a soft engineering strategy
(Also fishing and dredging, the latter upsetting the dynamic equilibrium of the coastal system)
382
What are negative emissions?
An idea adopted by governments whereby the sequestration of carbon is delayed (a political promise). The transfer of carbon from the atmospheric store to biosphere or lithosphere is then greater to compensate
383
Give an example of negative emissions
Australia has pledged to cut 25% of emissions by 2030
384
Give 2 reasons why negative emissions are a bad idea?
1) The effects of climate change will catch up very quickly with +ve feedback
2) Governments are removed in elections and policy changes (seen in Australia)
385
How much vegetation is required to avoid a 'carbon debt' (exceeding the carbon budget)?
3x the size of India (requires global support)
386
Why is the impact of positive feedback loops in the carbon cycle worrying?
Some have not even been discovered
387
What are the 3 main Climate Change mitigation methods?
1) Carbon Capture and Storage
2) Changing rural land use
3) Improved transport practices
388
How much of transport-related emissions does aviation contribute to? What about all anthropogenic emissions?
12% of transport
2% global
389
By how much have aviation emissions grown by since 2005?
70% 2005-2020
390
How much CO2 does Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) sequestrate?
90%
391
What are the 3 components of a 'CCS chain'?
1) Capture
2) Transport
3) Storage
392
What are the 3 methods used to capture carbon?
1) Pre-combustion
2) Post-combustion capture
3) Oxy-fuel combustion
393
How can CCS be used to actually extract raw materials?
CO2 forced underground at very high pressure, forcing oil and gas out with it
This uses energy and enhances the problem, so not necessarily a good idea
394
What is geo-sequestration?
When CO2 is stored deep in geological rock formations
395
Give an example of CCS
Boundary Dam, Saskatchewan
396
How does CCS take place at Boundary Dam?
- 110 megawatt coal power plant
- Retrofitted to capture 90% CO2 output
- CO2 piped 66km away to Weyburn Oil Unit
- Injected 1,500m below surface into lithospheric stores
- Oil pussed out bu ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
397
When was the CCS system at Boundary Dam installed?
2014
398
How much has the CCS system at Boundary Dam cost?
$800 million
399
What are 4 major disadvantages of CCS?
1) Cost
2) Energy intensive with 20% of energy produced at power stations used to transport and store CO2
3) Limited to CO2, not CH4
4) Possible environmental effects such as leakage causing suffocation or contaminating water supplies
400
Why is injecting CO2 into the oceans a bad idea?
Can cause ocean acidification in high concentrations with carbonic acid. This threatens life on earth
401
What is the equivalent amount of trees CCS provides?
62 million trees
402
How much of atmospheric CO2 does CCS currently sequestrate?
1%
403
How much global greenhouse gas mitigation potential do grasslands offer?
810 million tonnes of CO2 before 2030
404
How can the carbon storage potential of soils be improved?
By adding manures and fertilisers
Also increasing soil biodiversity with earthworms
405
How can the carbon storage potential of croplands be improved? (3 methods)
- Mulching
- Reduced ploughing to reduce CO2 transfer from pedosphere to atmosphere
- Rotation of crops so more biomass returns to the soil
406
How can the carbon storage potential of croplands be improved? (3 methods)
- Protect existing forests for maximum sequestration with a natural sere system
- More trees (afforestation)
- More agroforestry
407
According to the UN, how much of GhG emissions come from agriculture?
20%
408
How many people flew in 2013? How much CO2 was there produced?
3 billion airline passengers, 750 million tonnes CO2
409
What are the main 5 strategies the aviation industry is adopting to mitigate the effects of climate change?
1) Increased aircraft fuel efficiency
2) Improved flight behavior (slower speeds and less circling)
3) Alternative fuels
4) Less passengers
5) Full seating capacity
410
How much CO2 does each passenger emit with EasyJet?
75g carbon/person/km
411
By how much has EasyJet reduced carbon emissions per person since 2000?
By 30%
412
What has EasyJet done to mitigate the effects of climate change?
- Purchased an Airbus A321neo, a more fuel efficient aircraft
- Increased seat capacity
413
What legistation has the EU made to help reduce aviation GhG emissions?
- The EU emissions trading system was expanded to include aircraft in 2012
- Airlines must declare their emissions
- Allowances are offered as an incentive to lower GhG emissions
414
What is a new method of mitigating the GhG emissions with aviation on a personal basis?
Carbon offsetting, became popular in 2019 and used by Sir Elton John with Prince Harry
415
What are the issues with changing land use for climate change mitigation?
- Too rural centric
- Hard to adapt cultural practices
- Need to change eating practices more
416
What are the issues with changing aviation practices for mitigating climate change?
- Not enough focus on deterring flying
| - 'Carbon offsetting' does not all go towards planting trees (30% goes to the company)
417
Rank CCS, changing rural land use and improved aviation practices
1) Changing rural land use (but should include urban)
2) Aviation (not enough discouragement)
3) CCS (defeats the objective)
418
Besides CCS, changing rural land use and aviation practices, what are 2 alternatives?
1) Geo-engineering
| 2) Changing urban land use
419
What could be done instead of mitigating climate change?
ADAPTING?? Sundarbans
420
What percentage of the river Mole flows over the north downs?
30%
421
During drought conditions, what happens to the river Mole?
Flows underground
422
Give an example of how the water and carbon cycles affect a species of animal
- Penguin colonies in Antarctica have declined by 80% in 50 years
- Chinstrap penguins on Elephant island have declined by 50% since 1971
423
Why have Penguins declined in Antarctica?
- Penguins feed on krill which depend on icebergs
- Anthropogenic climate change has caused atmospheric carbon concentrations to increase
- This in turn causes a transfer of water from the cryosphere to the hydrosphere
``
424
What is the temperature record in Antarctica? When was this set?
18.3 degrees C on the 7th Feb 2020
425
When did the River Wye most recently flood?
16-18th February 2020 Storm Dennis
426
How significant was the February 2020 event (Dennis) on the River Wye?
- The highest levels ever
| - "Completely unrecognisable"
