Human - Urban Environmnets Flashcards
Define Urbanisation.
The process whereby the proportion of people living in towns and cities increases.
What is the difference between urbanisation and urban growth?
Urbanisation = Proportional/relative increase
Urban growth= Absolute increase
What is a millionaire city?
A city with a population in excess of 1 million people
What is a megacity?
A city with a population of over 10 million people (can incorporate surrounding metropolitan areas)
What is a world city?
A city which has a ‘global’ influence - a financial, trade, political and cultural hub.
Give 3 examples of world cities.
London, New York and Tokyo
What is an issue surrounding the classification of urban dwellers?
- Census data varies between countries (sampling times)
- The area covered by a city is often undefined/debateable.
- The definition of what constitutes an urban area or population varies, in India ‘rural’ means 5000 people/km
Where is the majority of urbanisation currently occurring?
Africa and Asia at an increasing rate
In what type of settlement is the majority of urbanisation currently taking place?
Large towns and small cities in both HICs and LICs. Not big cities…
What is urbanism?
A way of life or culture present in urban areas. Can happen anywhere on earth.
If census data from countries is inaccurate, how do we know that urbanisation is happening?
- Satellite images show area covered is increasing
- Visits to urban areas worldwide have shown pop density increase
True or false?
The majority of the world lives in cities.
FALSE
The majority live in urban areas - not necessarily cities.
When did the global urban population exceed the rural population?
2008
When did urban growth in MICs/LICs begin to accelerate?
1970s
Which country has the most megacities?
China
How do urban areas shape lives?
- Organisation of economic production (Financial services)
- Exchange of ideas (universities)
- Social and cultural centres (theatres, stadiums)
- Centres of political power (seat of local/national gov.)
What percentage of UK population live in urban areas?
80%
What are some misconceptions about urbanisation?
- Only occurs in cities
2. It is a modern phenomenon (actually been occuring for 1000s of years)
What are the two main causes of urban growth?
- Natural increase
2. Rural-urban migration
Why does natural population growth occur more in urban areas than elsewhere?
More young people in cities
Name 4 push factors.
- Agricultural issues in rural areas, blights + desertification
- Wars and civil strikes
- Lack of services (doctors, transport, rural deprivation)
- Natural disasters/ acute shocks
Name 4 pull factors.
- Better services, importantly in close proximity
- Wider variety of employment opportunities
- Perception of a better life quality, ‘bright light syndrome’
- More entertainment with theatres etc.
What happens to the economy (sectors) as urbanisation increases over time?
- Primary decreases (less arable land etc)
- Secondary increases and decreases, latter due to deindustrialisation
- Tertiary increases and then more Quaternary too
Define urban sprawl.
The spread of urban areas into surrounding countryside in an uncontrolled and unplanned fashion
What are some problems associated with urban sprawl (link to urban issues).
- More infrastructure required
- Decentralisation of CBD, doughnut cities
- Habitat loss
- Commuting distance increases
- Water supplies affected, more runoff + contamination
How much water in pipe systems in India reaches slums?
Only 5% the required amount
By how much did house prices in London increase 2010-2015?
50% increase
What is underemployment?
Being in a job which is inadiquately paid or too ‘easy’
What is a major issue with urban housing in LICs?
Homes are being built on informal land which is prone to floods or landslides. (Favellas)
What is the estimated number of sum dwellers?
1 billion (although extrapolated)
What was the traditional way of ‘improving’ slums?
Slum clearance and eradication
What is a new technique used to improve slums?
Slum upgrading programmes, partnering with NGOs. Focuses on securing citizenship, rights and providing utilities.
Define suburbanisation.
The movement of people from living in the inner parts of a city to living on outer edges.
More common in HICs because of better transport networks and more private cars.
What is a greenfield site?
Undeveloped countryside areas previously never built on
Why are suburbs more popular with families?
- Quiet
- Less pollution
- Closer to the countryside for recreation
When were green belts created in the UK? Why?
1940s. To restrict the urban sprawl of cities into the countryside
Name a social problem associated with suburbanisation.
More social segregation because wealthy can afford to live in the suburbs whilst the poor cannot. A major issue in US cities
Name an economic impact of suburbanisation.
Funding and industries leave the city centre to the suburbs. Leaves an empty city centre
What is an example of suburbanisation?
Los Angeles
How many people live in the ‘San-San corridor’?
24 million
Why did LA grow?
- Trans-continental railway 1876
- Oil discovery
- Ford Manufacturing plant
- Film industry in Hollywood
How many people use cars to commute in LA?
70%
Name 3 causes of suburbanisation in LA.
- Telecommunications allow people to work at home
- More high-tech industry employees can work at home
- High car ownership gives residents a choice of where to live
What has happened to LA’s layout?
Turned into a donut city following suburbanisation, with socioeconomic consequences
What are some other problems (besides suburbanisation) in LA?
- Water has to be pumped in 350km and domestic usage in swimming pools etc is increasing
- 50% of imported water evaporates en-route
- 50k tonnes waste produced/day
- Use of air cons has caused blackouts +ve feedback too
Define counter-urbanisation.
The migration of people from major urban areas to smaller urban settlements (but not really remote areas)
Define gentrification
The renewal of an area leading to an influx of affluent people
Why do people leave cities?
- Cleaner environment
- Better quality of life
- Less crime
- Commuting into cities is easier
- Internet has improved
What piece of legislation encouraged counter-urbanisation?
1946 New Towns Act
Name 3 new towns.
- Milton Keynes
- Biggleswade
- St. Ives
What was the original intention for the function of new towns?
To employ local people in new local industries.
Instead New Towns have become commuter towns.
What are some problems with counter-urbanisation?
- Over-reliance on cities means that busses are less frequently used etc.
What was the population of St Ives in 1960? What about 2010?
1960: 3,800
2010: 16,400
What proportion of the St Ives population commute into London?
25%.
Likely to be much higher if Cambridge commuters are also accounted for.
Give a social issue of counter-urbanisation in St Ives.
- House prices have risen by 120% between 2000-2010
- Also pressure on schools
Give an environmental issue of counter-urbanisation in St Ives.
1000 properties are at risk of flooding from the River Ouse. Flooding occurred in 1998 and 2003
Give an economic issue of counter-urbanisation in St Ives.
Commuting by car has caused congestion which delays journeys, looses revenue.
What solutions are in place to counter-act the housing shortage in St Ives?
200 new homes built in 2010, 75 of which are affordable
What solutions are in place to counter-act the lack of school places in St Ives?
Primary schools have been expanded to make 250 new places avaliable
What solutions are in place to counter-act flooding in St Ives?
Flood protection (levees) works costing £8.8 million completed in 2007
Define Urban Resurgence
The economic and structural regeneration of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline. Often prompted by redevelopment schemes as well as social and demographic processes.
Define Deindustrialisation
The loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector due to economic downturn of governmental policies
Define Decentralisation
The movement of population and industry away from the urban centre. Can encompass suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation
Define the Negative multiplier effect
A downward spiral of events that follows economic downturn or the decline of investment in an area. (much like +ve feedback)
What is a service economy?
Tertiary or Quaternary sectors which provide a ‘service’, eg Doctors, Professionals, Shop assistants etc.
Why did businesses leave the London Docklands?
Infrastructure was outdated and the industrial sites were no longer fit for purpose. Businesses left, decentralisation due to economic multiplier.
What have all UK urban policies aimed to do? (5 aims)
- Improve housing
- Create jobs and training opportunites
- Enocorage private sector investment
- Environmental enhancement by creating green spaces
- Covert or replace derelict buildings and brownfield sites
Give two examples of areas undergoing urban resurgence.
- Birmingham Jewellery Quarter
2. NY City Highline
What was the UK urban policy in the 1980s?
Urban Development Corporations (UDCs).
Also Enterprise Zones (EZs)
What was the UK urban policy in the 1990s?
City Challenge
What was the UK urban policy in the 2000s?
New Deal for Communities (NDCs)
What was the aim of Enterprise Zones?
- To develop areas of unemployment
- Business taxes reduced
What was a major problem with Enterprise Zones?
Resulted in businesses relocated to EZs instead of start-ups relocating
Give an example of a modern redevelopment project in London.
Battersea Power Station
Who is financing the redevelopment project at Battersea Power station?
A Malaysian property development and investment business. (external agencies agent of change)
What are 3 key elements of the Battersea power station redevelopment?
- New shops, art and leisure facilities on a 40-acre site
- The grade II listed Power Station will be retained
- Connect the surrounding area with a new Tube Station
What is the example of Urban Development Corporations?
London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC)
What is the example of City Challenge?
Hulme, Manchester
What is the example for New Deals for Communities?
Devonport Regeneration
What approach did Urban Development Corporations follow?
A top-down approach which was supposed to spark investment into derelict sites
Where did the London Docklands Development Corporation take place?
22 square kms in east London, encompassing Newham, Tower Hamlets and Southwark
What did the London Docklands Development Corporation create?
Canary Wharf, London City airport and the DLR
How many jobs did the London Docklands Development Corporation create?
120,000 jobs
What was unique about the London Docklands Development Corporation?
The corporation had planning powers, allowing more extreme measures to be made without consultation of residents
What was a social benefit of the London Docklands Development Corporation redevelopment?
22,000 homes created with new schools and shops
What was an economic benefit of the London Docklands Development Corporation redevelopment?
New transport routes with the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and an extension to the Jubilee Line - area became suburbanised
What was an environmental benefit of the London Docklands Development Corporation redevelopment?
200,000 trees planed and 750 hectares of derelict land was reclaimed
Give 3 negative effects of the London Docklands Development Corporation redevelopment.
- Jobs went to outsiders because locals did not have skills
- Housing was not affordable - did not benefit locals
- Gentrification occurred, prices increased
Where is Hulme (location of City Challenge example) located?
10 minuets walk from Manchester City centre
How were cities chosen for the City Challenge?
As the name suggests, cities competed against one another for grants
How much did City Challenge invest in Hulme?
£200 million over 5 years
What was a social benefit of the City Challenge, Hulme, redevelopment?
3,000 homes were built but traditional houses were retained and renovated
What was an economic benefit of the City Challenge, Hulme, redevelopment?
New developments were encouraged. ASDA provided 350 jobs
Give 3 negative effects of the City Challenge, Hulme, redevelopment.
- Area became filled with students, locals did not benefit
- The project was £200 million over budget
- Education and key services still not improved - too much emphasis on the environmental appearance
How many houses are still in social rented accommodation post-regeneration in Hulme, Manchester?
Nearly 50%
What was the aim of New Deals for Communities (NDCs)?
- To improve the 39 most deprived neighbourhoods in the UK, including Devonport, over 10 years
- ‘Communities at the heart of regeneration’
- Partnered with businesses and the local community, multiple agents of change
How many people in Devonport are below 16?
25%, 5% higher than average
How many households in Devonport have no car?
59%
Why was invsetment needed in Devonport?
- Very deprived
- Young demographic
- 75% households rely on council for social housing
- Lack of education
- Segregation by Navy for 50 years, lack of integration in the community
How much funding did Devonport receive, and when, by the New Deals for Communities?
£48 million in 2001
How many new houses did the NDCs in Devonport create?
1000 new dwellings, 400 afforable
Council flats demolished and replaced with attractive, award-winning housing
What environmental considerations have been made in the Devonport NDC redevelopment?
Homes are energy-efficient, hoping to reduce local and global environmental impacts
How much money was designated to education in Devonport?
£4 million. This is much better than in Hulme (CC) where lack of investment in education was the largest pitfall
What are the issues with the redevelopment of Devonport?
- Very little consultation with locals
- Still very deprived
- Less economic emphasis - not many jobs created
What highlights the success of the Devonport redevelopment?
Awarded the ‘Great Neighbourhood Award’ in 2013; only one of 3 places in the UK
What is the normal population density of Megacities?
2,000 people/km2
What is meant by ‘Spacial Proximity’?
The relative distance to various locations which can lead to the development of innovation
What is meant by ‘Outsourcing’?
The employment of other people from overseas or outsiders
What is the order of ranking world cities, according to the Globalisation and World Rankings Research Network (GaWR)?
Alpha ++ cities Alpha + Alpha Beta Gamma
What makes an alpha ++ city?
INTEGRATION - much more integrated than other cities
Give 2 (the only) examples of alpha ++ cities.
New York and London
Give 3 examples of alpha + cities
HK, Tokyo and Paris
What are Alpha and Beta (normal) cities characteristics?
Important world cities which link major economic regions in the world economy
What are the characteristics of Gamma cities?
Link very small regions in the world economy. Not mainly in producer sectors
What percentage of the world’s population live in megacities?
12%, which is pretty small. Megacities grow slowly, most at 1% pop increase / year
How much larger are megacity economies compared to normal cities?
2-3x more GDP than other cities
Name 3 characteristics of established megacities.
- Advanced and effective governance
- Engaged in regeneration and sustainable projects
- Service-sector economy
Give an example of an established megacity.
London, UK
Give an example of a mature megacity.
Sao Paulo, Brazil
Give an example of a consolidating megacity.
Mumbai, India
Give an example of an immature megacity.
Lagos, Nigeria
Why does the location of London make it a world city?
- Globally central with GMT
- Global transport hub
- In south-easy UK, many connections
Relative to some other countries, how big is London’s economy?
Larger than Sweeden and Austria. Also larger than Denmark and Portugal put together
How many tourists visit London each year?
30 million/year
How much revenue does the royal family make from tourism in London?
£500 million
What international political summits are held in London frequently?
G8 (/7) and Nato summits are sometimes held in London, highlighting the city’s political importance nationally and internationally
Define urban morphology.
The shape, including spacial structure and organisation, and appearance of urban areas. The result of urban dynamics and processes
What is an edge city?
A self-contained settlement which has emerged beyond the original boundary of a city. Now an outright city although may be engulfed by urban sprawl
What does the Burgess model show?
A circular model to show land use in urban areas. Common in pre-planned cities in the US
What does the Hoyt model show?
Sectors of a city in a semi-centric approach, with the CBD in the centre
What does the Multiple Nuclei model, by Harris and Ullman, show?
A generally more realistic approach with a random distribution of land-use zones.
What does the bid-rent theory model show?
A graph to show how the price of land varies as distance from the centre increases and how this affects the type of industry and land use.
What is an MBC?
A motor-based city
Give 2 examples of pre-industrial cities.
Lincoln and Bath - mostly unaffected by industrial developments
What are socialist cities?
‘Classless’ cities with the same types of buildings. Political centres eg Prague and Berlin
What are some features of African cities?
Cities which have industry developing in a chaotic matter because of lack of industrialisation as a colony
What is a post-industrial city?
A city with a looser structure with lots of smaller high-tech zones. A multi-nodal structure with a less dominant CBD. Eg Milton Keynes and Tokyo
What is the population density of Mumbai?
27,000 people / km2
What is the largest ethnic group in LA?
Mexican Hispanics
How many migrants does Mumbai receive each day?
1000 new migrants / day
What is meant by ‘Postmodernism’?
Changes that took place in western society and culture in the lath 20th century. Concerns the architectural and artistic deviation from modernist conformity
How does the urban structure of a post-modern city differ from others?
A multi-nodal structure with high-tech corridors
How does achetecture of a post-modern city differ from others?
Modern cities had functional architecture, post-modern cities have architecture which is an expression not a function with heritage incorporated
What is the economy of post-modern cities like?
A service-sector economy for niche markets in a global economy. Telecoms dominate
How do post-modern cities approach planning?
Emphasises aesthetic, not social needs. Planned in fragments
How do post-modern cities differ culturally?
- More ethnically diverse
- Fragmented culturally
What is an example of a post-modern city?
Las Vagas
Why is Las Vagas a post-modern city?
- Unique, pioneering urban structure with ‘the strip’
- Extravagant urban architecture
- Local government works alongside private companies
- Less tax to boost casino industry
- Builders given free rein
- Racial divides and tensions
What are Fortress Landscapes?
Landscapes designed so that security and protection are prioritised
Give a UK example of a Fortress Landscape.
Manchester - hostile architecture and speed bumps etc.
What are some of the elements in the LA Fortress Landscape?
Metal fences and armed response units
Give 4 features of edge cities.
- Near major road or rail links
- Lack clear structure
- Wide range of amenities
- Cultureless
How have cities improved cultural and heritage quarters?
Beginning in 1980s, focus is on the history of an area based on a single industry (eg Birmigham jewellery industry). Attracts tourists, but must be prioritised in poor areas.
What are Town Centre Mixed developments?
Developments taking place in many towns to increase the variety of facilities and functions for urban users besides retail in town centres.
What are some components of Town Centre Mixed Developments?
- More leisure facilities (cinemas + cafes
- Open spaces
- Nightlife
- Attractions, M Shed Bristol
- Restricting out of town developments so emphasis on town centre
Give an example of a Town Centre Mixed Development.
Exeter, new mixed-use city centre developed in 2007
What was done during the Town Centre Mixed Development in Exeter?
- 60 new retail units
- 120 flats
- Improved access to Medieval tunnels
- Information centres and 10 cafes
- Roman walk incorporated into shopping centre
What is an example of conflict in urban areas (link CP)?
The Shoreditch Cereal Killer Cafe, September 2015
Why did people attack the Cereal Killer Cafe in Shoreditch?
Protesters believed that the cafe epitomised gentrification in Shoreditch
How much does cereal cost at the Cereal Killer Cafe in Shoreditch?
£4.40 - it’s unsurprising that residents are angry!
What is meant by diaspora?
A group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have settled in the same location elsewhere in the world
What are some causes of social segregation?
- Disparities in wealth,
- Ethnicity
- Religion
- Age
What is Antilla?
The world’s most expensive home
How much does Antilla, the world’s most expensive home, cost?
$2 billion. The owners net wealth is $21 billion
What is is like to live in a poor area of London?
- Longer commutes on cheaper busses
- Long contract hours on below the minimum wage
- 2x more likely to dies from chronic illnesses
- Fear of crime and gang violence
Why do developers provide insufficient quantities of affordable housing?
Developers always look for profits, based on markets. Government subsidies are insufficient
Why does a spiral of decline occur in poorer areas?
- SOCIAL More migrants move to areas with mre housing and concentration of migrants increases in that area
- ENVIR areas can become more run-down due to kess investment
- ECON Developers don’t build enough affordable housing
Where were the majority of deprived areas (according to the IMD) in 2010?
98% deprived areas in the UK in 2010 were in cities
Where were the majority of deprived areas (according to the IMD) in 2015?
The majority of deprived areas were in areas with historically heavy industry and mining sectors. Symbolises government policies 2010-2015
What is an example of inequality in the UK?
Shadsworth Estate, Blackburn, Lancashire
What percentage of residents in Shadsworth have no formal qualifications?
30% of residents
What are opinions among residents in Shadsworth regarding inequality there?
People feel ‘frustrated’ and children ‘fear for the future’
What 2 factors caused poverty in Shadsworth?
- 2009 recession (made the divide larger)
- Some residents have learning difficulties making finding a job harder
- Very large families, often with a single parent - makes retaining a job very difficult
What (poor) management strategies are there currently in place in Shadsworth?
- Benefits
- Tax credits
Cuts have reduced the number of people entitled to these though
What is a living wage?
A requirement for employers to pay the minimum amount to workers so that all amenities are affordable
Name 7 strategies used to solve urban social segregation.
- Fairness commissions
- Enforcing a living wage
- Supporting Low-skilled workers
- More public transport
- Access to affordable homes
- Minimum environmental standards
- Provision of schools
Following the introduction of the Living wage in London in 2005, how many families have been alleviated from poverty?
10,000 families out of poverty in London since 2005
Why is the provision of schools important in reducing social segregation?
Allows all individuals to gain suitable qualifications for jobs
Why is supporting low-skilled workers important in reducing social segregation?
Allows people to develop new abilities and makes labour markets more inclusive in cities
Why is access to affordable housing important in reducing social segregation?
Housing costs in London are slowing the economy because low paid workers cannot work in the capital. The economy is like a food chain
What do fairness commissions do?
Try to improve the lives of residents in urban areas by researching issues and finding suitable solutions. Very ‘top down’, a slight -ve
What is the Caste System?
A Hindu social division system whereby ‘Castes’ are awarded different privileges and limitations
How many languages are spoken in London?
Over 300 languages spoken
How many non-indigenous communities are there in London?
50 non-indigenous communities with populations of over 10,000 people
Why are there more ethnic groups in urban areas worldwide?
Globalisation of transport
Why is there more cultural diversity in cities (compared to rural areas)?
- Range of job opportunities
- First point of entry into a country
- Diversity becomes established, so more groups move in
- Urban populations become tolerant of migrants
How has ethnicity varied in Oldham over the past 40 years?
- 1980 mostly white
- 2001 11% Asian
What caused the Oldham riots?
A 70-year-old was attacked by Asian groups in April 2001 following ongoing segregation efforts
Why were the original residents of Oldham unhappy?
Long-term residents were angry about the influx of migrants because of pressures on housing and education in Oldham
What was said in a Home Office report after the Oldham riots in May 2001?
The report stated that people in Britain were leading “Parallel” and “Polarised” lives which lead to hostility
What 5 strategies were implemented NATIONALLY following the Oldham riots in 2001?
- Mix ethnic groups in different areas
- Encourage mixed-race schools
- Faith schools should admit people of different faiths
- Public sector employees should be mixed race
- Police should be community focused
What did the local council in Oldham do following the riots in May 2001 (5 strategies)?
- Support English Language classes
- Economic support in segregated areas
- Schemes in schools encouraging friendships from different backgrounds
- NCS launched by David Cameron
- British Values in school curriculums
Name a predominantly white neighbourhood in Oldham.
St Mary’s Ward
Name a predominantly Asian neighbourhood in Oldham.
Glodock Ward
What has changed to the education system in Oldham?
A new academy has been built merging 2 schools with different ethnicties
What percentage of residents in Shadsworth have no GCSEs?
39%
What is the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect?
The increased temperature of urban areas relative to surrounding rural areas
What are urban canyon winds?
Winds which are channelled down narrow gaps between buildings
In what ways do urban environments affect the weather and climate of cities?
- Temperatures
- Precipitation
- Wind
- Air quality
When is the UHI effect most noticeable. Why?
The UHI effect is most noticable at night and during the summer/winter. Due to less winds
How much warmer can the CBD of an urban area be compared to the surrounding countryside?
Nearly 10C warmer
What new techniques are there (besides increasing veg cover) which can reduce the UHI effect?
Cool roofing which has a very high Albedo which is very efficient
What 3 factors contribute to the UHI effect?
- Darker surfaces absorb short-wave solar radiation
- Air pollution traps more re-emitted heat
- Less vegetation, so less moisture which absorbs heat
What is the urban canopy layer?
The layer of warm air closest to the surface
What is the urban boundary layer?
A layer of warm air which extends 1km high during the day. Urban plumes are caused by the urban boundary layer moving with the wind.
What is an urban plume?
The movement of warm air which has built up over a city into surrounding countryside
What is the acronym for the effects of the UHI effect?
Wear Wach
What does ‘WEAR WACH’ stand for?
Water
Ecology
Anticyclone
Resources
Weathering
Allergies
Climate
Health
Why is water (Wear wach) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
More water is used by residents during hit spells. Puts pressure on the water suppy
Why is ecology (wEar wach) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
Algae blooms and other urban pests become more common
Why is anticyclone (weAr wach) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
Pollution and smog are more common during UHI conditions
Why is resources (weaR wach) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
More heat means that energy supplies are put under strain, such as air con - causes +ve feedback too
Why is weathering (wear Wach) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
Historical monuments ruined by temperature-induced chemical weathering
Why are allergies (wear wAch) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
Plants and trees bloom for longer, affecting hay fever sufferers
Why is climate (wear waCh) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
The intensity of the UHI effect will increase with climate change
Why is health (wear wacH) a matter for concern regarding the UHI effect?
Very young and old urban users are vulnerable to heat stroke
Name 5 strategies to reduce the UHI effect.
- Cool surfaces (roofs and pavements)
- Green roofs
- Urban greening
- Sky view factor
- Cool cars
What is one benefit of green roofs concerning the UHI effect?
Green roof reduce rooftop temperatures by 40C. (Also a number of drainage benefits, multinational)
What is ‘sky view factor’?
The relative openness between buildings in an urban area. If very narrow, then warmer temps because heat cannot escape so easily
How much cooler are cool cars?
A Honda civic with a ‘cool car’ design is 5C cooler than identical non-cool version
What are cool cars?
Cars designed to reduce heating effect internally and externally. Fitted with lighter coloured shelves and less air con usage
What other effect, besides temperature increases, does the UHI effect cause?
Affects the precipitation rates because the UHI effect increases convection.
How much more common are thunderstorms in urban areas?
25% more common than the surrounding rural areas
Why does the UHI effect cause more fog?
The low pressure created by the warm air rising draws in moisture
How much more cloud cover do urban areas receive?
10% more frequent cloud cover
How many more day each year did London receive fog in the 1800s compared to the 1700s?
30 days a year more
What is a term used to describe smog and fog in New Dehli and Beijing?
‘Airpocalypse’
Why do urban areas experience more wind in general?
Urban areas are low pressure because air is rising due to heat. Rural areas are generally high pressure so winds are created.
What are urban canyon winds?
Winds channelled down streets which cause wind speeds to increase at street level.
What occurs with winds on the leeward side of buildings?
There is lower pressure so air passes through at high speed - the Venturi Effect
What is an example of wind speeds increasing becaus of a skyscraper?
The centre point skyscraper in London
What microclimate does the Walkie Talkie tower in London make?
A suntrap / heat island. Car parts melted and the building material had to be replaced in 2014
What is Masdar City, Abu Dhabi?
A zero-carbon, zero-waste city complex built to implement sustainable energy
When will Masdar city be complete? How many residents will there be?
Complete by 2025
40000 residents
What are the renewable energy sources in Masdar city?
Sunlight and Wind are both harnessed
Name a building that “went wrong” - i.e created an adverse microclimate.
John Hancock building, Boston - caused motion sickness and 5000 panels to be blown off the building
How much more NOx is there in urban areas compared to rural areas?
10x more NOx
How much more Sulphur Dioxide is there in urban areas compared to rural areas?
200x more
What causes particulate smog?
Particles and NOx and CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels
What causes photochemical smog?
Volatile organic compounds from the evaporation of solvents and Ozone
What are anticyclonic conditions?
High pressure which builds up over a city in a shallow valley, tapping pollutants
In what climates is photochemical smog more common?
Hot, arid cities like LA and Dubai
When was the Great Smog?
8th-11th December 1952
How many people died in the Great Smog?
4000 deaths
What are 3 methods of reducing air pollution?
- Clean air acts
- Improvements to public transport
- Education and Advertisements
When was the first UK clean air act introduced?
1956
What clean air legislation did the UK government establish in the 1990s?
Restrictions on PM10s in the air
What 3 methods are there to reduce air pollution?
1) Clean air acts
2) Vehicle control + Public transport
3) Zoning of industries
What is the history of clean air acts?
1956 Smoke-free zones in London
1990s Pollution forcefully reduced (esp PM10s)
Councils must monitor air quality and set up management plans
Have clean air acts been effective?
Pollution, especially PM10s, has reduced
NOx emissions higher than EU regulations
How has vehicle control and public transport helped to reduce air pollution?
- More options for travel
- ULEZ introduced in 2019
- 2003 congestion charge
When discussing urban areas WHO are we talking about?
Urban USERS
How can the zoning of industries reduce pollution in urban areas?
Factories placed downwind of cities with higher chimneys
How has LA reduced pollution?
More carpooling lanes
How was pollution in urban areas controlled in the 1980s?
Bypasses built around towns and cities
Where have waterways been used as an alternative to cars? Why?
In London and Bristol
Reduces street-level pollution
What alternative method of reducing pollution have urban planners proposed?
Banning cars on certain days or alternating cars based upton number plate recognition
Why is public transport better than congestion charges?
- Congestion charges do not prevent cars being used
- Often difficult to impose legislation
- Public transport initiatives can use renewable fuels
- Less fuel burnt per-person on public transport
How do pollution reduction strategies have economic benefits?
Fewer vehicles = shorter commuting times
What is an issue with Masdar City, Abu Dhabi?
Too focused on the current climate - not thinking about future climates, very unsustainable
How much cooler will Masdar City be compared to nearby Abu Dhabi?
Up to 10 degrees colder
What is German Truck Tolling?
A method of controlling truck pollution in Germany
How does the German Truck Tolling system work?
GPS tracking of trucks, enabling the government to charge companies based on:
- Distance traveled
- No. of axles
- Pollution emissions
In what ways has German Truck Tolling been successful?
60% of miles traveled are now by clean trucks
What are two issues with German Truck Tolling?
1) Needs more investment to be successful
2) Only focuses on trucks, a small proportion of all traffic. Also trucks don’t use urban areas as often as cars
How significant was the London Olympic park?
It was the largest areas of parkland created in a century
Who designed the London Olympic park?
Jon Hopkins - an agent of change (individual) and a flow of ideas in CP LINK
What was the main aim of the London Olympic park? How was this achieved?
To be absorbent.
Less hard engineering used and 20 year-old trees were installed by lorry
What are the two environmental advantages of the QEOP?
1) UHI reduced by increasing green spaces
2) More interception and infiltration of water (W+C)
How has the QEOP been bad socially?
- Gentrification has caused house prices to rise
- Carpenters estate
How does the UHI effect cause more pollution?
Increases the rate of reaction between VOCs and NOx, a positive feedback loop
By how much can large shade trees reduce ambient temperatures?
3-5 degrees, seen in Sacramento County, CA
Where does 16% of hydrocarbon emissions in urban areas come from?
Fuel delivery systems in cars become overheated due to UHI effect in open car parks
What is an example of trees absorbing pollution?
Trees in Chicago 1991 removed 234 tonnes of PM10s
When did London implement its new ‘air quality strategy’?
Between 2015 and 2020
What are the 5 methods involved in the London air quality strategy 2015-2020?
1) Ultra-Low Emission Zone (ULEZ)
2) Low emission bus zone
3) T-charge
4) Greener Transport systems
5) Education + public consultation
When was the ULEZ introduced?
8th April 2019
What does the ULEZ intend to do?
Reduce NOx emissions so that it conforms to EU standards
When will the ULEZ expand to include the whole of inner London?
2021
between north and south circulars
Give an example of a Low Emission Bus Zone in London. How bad is pollution there
Putney High Street
Legal pollution limits were exceeded >800x in 2016
What does Sadiq Khan want to occur in London by 2041 to drastically cut emissions?
For 80% of trips in London to be made on foot, bike or public transport
How will double-decker busses in London change from 2020?
All double decker busses will be hybrid, electric or hydrogen-fueled
How have important public places in London been modified to reduce pollution?
- School entrances have been moved away from busy roads
- “No engine idling schemes” outside schools
Think about changes to endogenous factors and built environment
How much money in London is being invested to tackle air quality?
£800 million
How many people die in London from long term pollution exposure?
Up to 9000 (estimate)
How many schools in London exceed air quality requirements?
> 400 schools
What is a better method on reducing pollution in London and the UK?
A nationwide strategy to help reduce pollution, following examples like German Truck Tolling and “ecological forms of mobility” in Switzerland
How many people in Asia will be vulnerable to flooding in urban areas by 2025?
350 million people
How much more (%) runoff do Urban areas experience compared to rural areas?
20-45% more runoff due to impermeable surfaces
What do SUDS do?
Deliver a more holistic approach to urban drainage by mimicking natural processes
Why do urban areas have more flashy flood hydrographs?
- Less infiltration
- More runoff
- DRAINAGE DENSITY is higher due to many drains leading into rivers
- Shorter lag time, higher peak discharge
What are the 4 traditional hard engineering strategies in urban drainage?
1) River straightening
2) Levees made higher
3) Flood relief channels
4) Channelisation
Why does river straightening not work?
Increases the gradient of the river so discharge increases so more flooding downstream
What does channelisation involve?
Lining straightened channels with concrete
What are the 4 traditional soft engineering strategies in urban drainage?
1) Afforestation
2) Riverbank conservation
3) Floodplain zoning
4) River restoration
How can wildfires affect urban drainage?
Ash turns into a concrete-like substance so the ground becomes impermeable
Give an example of wildfires affecting urban drainage?
Jan 2018 13 people died
What are the 6 types of SUDS?
1) Pervious surfaces
2) Rain gardens
3) Bioretention areas
4) Wetlands
5) Detention ponds
6) Green roofs
SUDS
What are rain gardens?
Small depressions near buildings which act as infiltration points for roof water
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of rain gardens?
- Easy to (retro)fit
- Attractive (sense of place)
- Easy to maintain
SUDS
What are 3 disadvantages of rain gardens?
- V. small volume of water able to infiltrate
- Requires management of the surrounding area or becomes clogged up
- Not suitable on slopes
SUDS
What are Bioretention areas?
Shallow, landscaped depressions which use engineered soils and veg to increase infiltration and percolation rates
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of Bioretention areas?
- Act as landscape features
- Removes harmful pollutants
- Easily retrofitted
SUDS
What are 3 disadvantages of Bioretention areas?
- Needs landscaping
- Easily clog up with silt
- Not suitable for slopes
SUDS
What are wetlands?
Shallow ponds + marshy areas with aquatic vegetation which provide stormwater treatment and attenuation
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of wetlands?
- Ecological benefits with rare species
- Adhesion of pollutants to vegetation
- Can be lined to reduce groundwater contamination
SUDS
What are 3 disadvantages of wetlands?
- Can raise property prices
- Requires lots of land + a base flow rate to support reeds and species
- No reduction to runoff
SUDS
What are detention ponds?
Surface storage areas that provide flow control of stormwater runoff
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of detention ponds?
- Caters for a range of rainfall types and intensities
- Simple design
- Dual land usage potential
SUDS
What are 2 disadvantages of detention ponds?
- Runoff volume not reduced so much
- Constrained by existing infrastructure
SUDS
What are green roofs?
A multi-layered system covering roofs, designed to intercept precipitation and to reduce runoff
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of green roofs?
- Successfully mimics pre-existing hydrology
- Removes atmospheric pollutants and UHI effects
- Can be used in high density developments
SUDS
What are 3 disadvantages of green roofs?
- More expensive than conventional roof
- Not suitable for steep-sloping roofs
- If damage occurs to impermeable membrane v. expensive to repair
SUDS
What are pervious surfaces?
POROUS or PERMEABLE surfaces
- Porous = water infiltrates across entire surface
- Permeable = cracks to allow infiltration to occur
Allows for the use by vehicles
SUDS
What are 3 advantages of pervious surfaces?
- Can be used in high-density urban areas
- Dual use by cars
- Can be retrofitted
SUDS
What are 3 disadvantages of pervious surfaces?
- Not suitable for areas where lots of sediment flows over the surface (covers cracks)
- Only suitable alongside slow-moving, light vehicles
- Weeds fill gaps
What have the South Downs National Park done to reduce driveway size?
From 2008 any paved driveways over 5m^2 require planning permission
When was london made as a national park city?
July 2019
What does SUDS stand for?
Sustainable Urban Drainage systems
SUDS
What are Swales?
Drainage channels which are normally dry but can cope with larger quantities of storm discharge
What SUDS has Cambourne, Cambridgeshire, used?
1) Permeable paving
2) Green roofs
3) Swales
4) Water Butts
5) Retention and detention ponds
6) Wetland basins
Where is Cambourne?
9 miles west of Cambridge
Where in Cambourne is a SUDs scheme being used?
On Lamb Drove
How many affordable houses are there in the Lamb Drove SUDS scheme?
35
When was the SUDS scheme on Lamb Drove, Cambourne completed?
2006
What was the aim of the SUDS scheme at Cambourne?
To demonstrate that SUDS are viable and attractive alternatives to traditional forms of drainage
What did the SUDS scheme at Cambourne pioneer?
The use of a ‘management train’
What is a ‘management train’?
The use of simple, natural drainage components in a successive series to improve water quality
Used to consider water management from the point at which water falls on roofs to leaving the site.
HOLISTIC
What have the SUDS at Lamb Drove done?
Enabled dynamic equilibrium to be maintained in the LOCALISED hydrosphere with a holistic approach
How much of the costs of the SUDS development in Cambourne have already been paid back?
10%
In the Cambourne SUDS by how many % are concentrations of Zinc and Lead lower compared to control sites?
Lead and Zinc are 80% lower
What are the 2 major flaws with SUDS?
1) Larger developments = more issues = more expensive
2) Expensive and time consuming to maintain
What does River Restoration mean?
Refers to a variety of ecological, physical and spacial measures implemented to help restore rivers to a natural state and function.
Facilitates recreational activities too
What are some characteristics of the River Lea?
- Source in Bedfordshire
- Mouth at Thames
- Chalk stream in upper course
Why was the river Lea restored? (4 reasons)
- Drains in London outdated
- Risk of flooding increased
- Impermeable surfaces adjacent to the river
- Inaccessible to the public with steep banks
When did the River Lea project start? Why?
2005 to prepare for 2012 olympics
How much did the River Lea restoration cost?
£50 million form several agents of change
Name 5 components of the River Lea restoration project.
1) Abandoned dock on City Mill river refurbished
2) Towpaths rebuilt
3) Channels dredged to allow more traffic and increase carrying capacity
4) Boat trips and other rec activities
5) Biodiversity
Where were SUDS used in the River Lea Restoration project / olympic park?
- Swales and balancing pools near basketball arena
- Water harvesting near velodrome
Who were the agents of change involved in the River Lea restoration?
Individuals = Jon Hopkins landscaper
Organisations = International Olympic committee, Olympic park legacy company, EA, British Waterways and Thames water
National Government too
Name 3 benefits of the River Lea restoration project
1) Sustainable, accounted for climate change with the use of water stores
2) Treated contaminated surfaces
3) Sustainable materials used, such as hessian mesh
Name 3 issues of the River Lea restoration project
1) Gentrification resulted in lack of support from Locals (Carpenters estate link)
2) Costly (but money well spent)
3) Very localised, only looked at the River Lea, not the Thames
How many jobs did the River Lea Restoration Project create?
40,000
How many homes did the River Lea restoration project protect from flooding?
5000 existing homes in Newham protected
How many plants were used in the River Lea restoration/ olympic park?
300,000 plants introduced, 30 varieties, some rare
How long are the Bow Back rivers?
16km long, 6km in the Olympic park
What is the new cycle route along the river Lea called?
‘The Leaway’ connects the Olympic park to the Thames - 3km long
How has the Lea restoration improved people’s sense of place?
Prior to the project people ‘didn’t feel safe and comfortable’ standing in the confined, hostile spaces next to the locks
What is a waste stream?
The complete flow of waste from source to disposal
Needs to be controlled to prevent wasting recyclable goods and releasing methane GhG
How much more waste do urban areas produce compared to rural areas?
Double rural areas and this is increasing 7% each year
In what countries is waste produced more?
HICs 10-30x the amount compared to LICs
Why do urban areas produce more waste than rural areas? (4 points)
- Rural areas are poorer so fewer items purchased
- More reuse in rural areas (resourceful)
- Community psychology - ‘they do it so why shouldn’t I?’
- (Urban) population increase = more waste
Which country is producing the most urban waste TOTAL?
China, overtook US in 2004
What countries produce the most waste PER CAPITA?
Small island states
If HICs consume more why is there less waste?
More developed = money to improve recycling infrastructure
What does MSW stand for?
Municipal solid waste
Between 2010 and 2025, which countries will see the greatest increase in the amount of waste produced? Why is this?
Lower Middle Income countries (%300 inc.)
More urban growth without legislation to tackle waste. Lowest income countries cannot afford to consume as much and HICs control waste for sustainability
What are the 8 types of Municipal solid waste?
1) Biomedical waste
2) Recyclable waste
3) Inert Waste
4) Composite Waste
5) Toxic waste
6) Hazardous waste
7) Biodegradable waste
8) Electrical waste
On what occasion did waste become a Hazard? What happend?
- Koshe Landfill site, Ethiopia
- 120 people killed in March 2017
- A rubbish mound had built up over 50 years
- Became an informal settlement
What approach to waste disposal do LICs use?
Name one environmental effect.
Unregulated disposal
UN identified diarrhea to be 2x more common near these areas
What is Guiyu?
The world’s largest electronic waste dump site in China. An example of unregulated waste disposal
How much money is made from recycling each year?
$30 billion/year
What do people do at Guiyu, China?
- 5000 workshops recycle 15,000 tonnes waste daily
- 1000s die yearly from lead poisoning
What is Recovery?
The informal exploitation of materials in unregulated waste sites
Why is incineration often used?
- The volume of waste can be reduced up to 90%
- Energy is a bi-product
How is waste incineration often performed in LICs? Give an example
Open burning on unregulated dumps in Delhi, India
How much e-waste is there produced annually?
50 million tonnes
How does the burial of waste differ between LICs and HICs?
LICs just hole in the ground
HICs controlled, allows gasses to be captured
Give an example of waste burial?
- Semakou landfill island, Singapore
- An offshore island of buried waste
- Impermeable membrane stops leaks
- Now green
What form of waste disposal is banned by the UN?
Submergence
Give an example of illegal submergence of waste.
- Runit Island, Marshall islands
- Nuclear waste submerged in bomb crater 1958
- Isotatic sinking and Eustatic change in the region may lead to more leakage in the future
Why is some waste traded?
Allows for LEDCs to effectively and safely dispose waste
What is institutional waste?
Waste produced by hospitals and schools
How is hospital waste classified in HICs?
As ‘risk’ or ‘non-risk’
Why is municipal waste difficult to deal with?
A mixture of wastes, so labour and time is required to sort it
Why is construction and demolition waste hard to deal with?
Whilst it can be easily categorised, could contain harmful materials, such as Asbestos
Name an innovative use of sewage waste
The Bristol airport poo bus
Give an example of a country which had too much waste?
Lebanon 2015
Beirut streets full of domestic waste because a landfill site was closed down, so the waste stream stopped
What are the two best methods of waste management?
1) Reduce
2) Reuse
What are the two worst methods of waste management?
- Landfill
- Open dump
What are 3 advantages of Landfill?
1) Uses old quarries
2) Methane used as a fuel
3) Can be used for recreation if landscaped
What are 3 disadvantages of Landfill?
1) Attracts vermin
2) Subsidence is common
3) Methane could escape, a GhG
What are 3 advantages of incineration?
1) Heat and energy produced as bi-products
2) Allows of municipal waste to be dealt with
3) Allows for hazardous waste to be dealt with too
What are 3 disadvantages of incineration?
1) Particulate emissions contribute to urban pollution
2) CO2 a GhG
3) Not all waste is combustible safely
What are 3 disadvantages of recycling?
1) Bottle banks collect litter
2) Expensive facilities
3) Takes time to sort items
What is Lansink’s ladder?
Est. 1994
Sets out to: “Avoid making waste in the first place, recover valuable materials, generate electricity by incineration and only dump what is left in an environmentally acceptable way”
How does Amsterdam control landfill?
- Landfill tax 1995
- Ban 1995 covering 35 categories
What is the incineration plant in Amsterdam called?
Afual Energie Bedrijf (AEB) incineration plant
How much energy does the Afual Energie Bedrijf (AEB) incineration plant produce annually?
- 1 million MwH annually for national grid
- Heats local homes with 300,000 Giga J/year
How much waste does the Afual Energie Bedrijf (AEB) incineration plant burn?
1.4 million tonnes per year
How much waste does Amsterdam recycle?
64% of all waste
What are 75% of complaints in Shenzhen associated with?
Noise pollution
What have the WTO siad about air pollution in urban areas?
Pollution was 2.5x higher in 50% of urban populations
How much pollution in Dhaka comes from brick kilns?
40%
How many urban users in India have access to a toilet?
87%
When did water pollution become bad in Lonhttps://www.brainscape.com/packsdon?
1858 ‘big stink’
How much sewerage entered the Thames in 2013?
55 million tonnes
How many derelict plots are there in Detroit?
40,000
1/3 land area
How much waste from Cairo is dumped in the desert?
60% !
Under what conditions does pollution build up?
Still, warm weather. In windy and rainy weather it is blown or washed away
What pioneering projects has Curitiba done?
- First pedestrian mall in Brazil
- Dedicated bus lanes
- Bus system is not subsidiesd, pays for itself
How frequently do busses arrive at stops in Curitiba?
Every 60 seconds
What does Curitiba aim to do in the future to become more sustainable?
Replace diesel busses with electric
When did the Delhi metro open?
2003
Now 8 lines
What are 2 issues still present in Delhi despite the new metro?
- Pop growth = more pressure
- Pollution on the trains themselves is over UN guidelines
What are ‘point sources’ and ‘diffuse/non-point sources’ of water pollution?
POINT = Specific areas water pollution comes from NON-POINT = Hard to source, eg drainage water
What EU law helps manage waste (HIC)?
The 1991 EU Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
Name 4 issues associated with water pollution.
1) Birth Defects
2) Toxic compounds damage health
3) Water Borne diseases in LICs account for 80% of ALL infection disease worldwide
4) Phosphorus causes Eutrophication
What process provides clean water (and electricity) for LICs?
The Janicki Omniprocessor
Give an example of education to help prevent water pollution.
2014 Wessex Water mobile billboards to persuade customers not to dispose of wet wipes in toilets
What is being built in London to help improve the outdated sewage system?
The 25km long Thames Tideway tunnel
What proportion of rivers in India are polluted?
50%
Other than eutrophication, in what other ways does water pollution in urban areas affect wildlife?
Water temperatures are too warm for aquatic organisms
When was Park and Ride introduced to Portsmouth?
2015
How much cost do trees save by naturally filtering air?
AECOM calculated that London’s 8.3 million trees provide £95 million air filtration / year
How can economic downturn occur in an area (3 points)?
- DeIndustrialisation
- Economic crash
- Cultural changes
What is dereliction?
When an area (Big/small) becomes RUN-DOWN + DILAPIDATED
What are the 2 main types of dereliction in the UK
Dilapidated industrial and housing areas
What is urban dereliction a cause and factor of?
A negative economic multiplier effect OR downward spiral
What are the 4 strategies used to manage urban dereliction?
1) Land remediation
2) Regeneration schemes (most common)
3) Brownfield site development
4) Community action
What are examples of regeneration schemes to manage dereliction?
UDCs
City Challenge
NDCs
By how many % have brownfield site developments increased by since 1997?
24%
What are 2 issues associated with brownfield developments?
1) More crime in city centres
2) Land needs to be decontaminated
What is land remediation?
The process of decontaminating the environment
Where has land remediation been used?
London Olympic park
- 350 ha cleared
- 80% soil retained
Give an example of community action to manage dereliction
Detroit 40 community gardens, 6 tonnes produce yielded/year
What are 3 advantages of brownfield developments?
1) Utilities in place
2) Closer to shops and amenities
3) Improves appearance of built environment endogenous factor
CAUSES POSITIVE MULTIPLIER EFFECT
Who grew up on the Aylesbury estate?
Tiny Tempah
When was Aylesbury estate built?
1967-1977 functional architecture, less attractive
What has the Aylesbury estate been called?
“A symbol of the failure of British social housing”
What have the farming projects in Detroit enabled?
More civic pride
How many flats and buildings are there on the Aylesbury estate?
2500 flats
60 buildings
What previous efforts have there been to resolve the dereliction on the Aylesbury estate?
Labour government gave £58 million 1998
Why did 75% of residents on the Aylesbury estate reject the 1998 funding?
The plan attached to the funding involved 65% of the estate being demolished and being replaced with 1000 new dwellings sold to private buyers
Why did crime rates on the Aylesbury estate drop in 1990s and 2000s?
New lighting installed
What further plans for the Aylesbury estate did the government announce in 2015?
The remaining 50 buildings will be “unbuilt” (aka demolished!) and the estate will be gone by 2032
What agents of change are involved in the redevelopment of Detroit?
Community groups to help restore civic pride and to re-establish racial integration since 1967 riots
How large is London’s ecological footprint?
Double the size of the whole UK
How large is Curitiba’s ecological footprint?
40% larger than Brazil’s!
What is the UN 1987 definition of sustainability?
Meeting the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
What 4 things do sustainable cities need to provide?
1) Employment opportunities
2) High standards of living
3) Fair governance
4) Clean, safe environment
What does ‘Livability’ mean?
Means different things to different people
‘The characteristics of a city which can improve the quality of life for residents’
Eg access to green spaces, cultural engagement
According the 2015 livability index, what city comes first?
Melbourne, AUS
How many of the top 10 happiest countries are in the top 10 livability countries? Why is this
Only 4 of the ten happiest are in the ten livability-est
- Happiness does not equal livability and is not a ranking component
What is one method of creating a sustainable urban area?
The Egan Wheel model
When was the Egan wheel made?
Made in 2001 for post-modern cities in the UK
What is the main advantage + disadvantage of the Egan wheel?
+ Assesses the need as well as an evaluation
- A bit ambiguous use of terms such as “environmentally friendly”…
What is the main advantage + disadvantage of classifying urban areas as systems?
+ A visual aid with boundaries to aid planning
- Boundary implies that urban areas have a confined impact (no global impact…)
What is the main advantage + disadvantage of the 4 pillars of systainability?
+ Equal importance, allows planners to identify gaps
- Only focuses on a few features
What are the 4 pillars of sustainability?
A UN approach to sustainability The 4 pillars are: 1) Social development 2) Economic development 3) Environmental management 4) Urban governance
What 3 factors should be considered with urban sustainability?
1) Global impact
2) Ecological footprint
3) Livability and social factors
What should be prioritised in developing countries to promote sustainability?
Focus on economic to enable social and environmental improvements
What model has Copenhagen followed to be sustainable?
The 4 pillars model (UN)
How has social development occurred in Copenhagen?
- 2% employees work >40 hours/week
- 250 cycle lanes
- 1,000,000 fewer sick days
How has economic development occurred in Copenhagen?
- Financial centre of Denmark
- Low unemployment
- Lots of independent retailers
- Start-up companies in the city
How has urban governance occurred in Copenhagen?
- More equality with the highest tax rates in the world
- Citizens dialogue project allows for bottom-up
- Gender equality
How has environmental management occurred in Copenhagen?
- Carbon neutral by 2025 (future gen thinking)
- Cultural and recreation zones
- Busses, tram and metro
- 4% energy from offshore windfarm
- 2007 ‘finger plan’ to protect the greenbelt
For what 3 categories on the Egan wheel is Copenhagen good at?
1) Governance (citizens dialogue)
2) Equity (more tax)
3) Environment (C neutral by 2025)
For what 2 categories on the Egan wheel is Copenhagen less good at?
1) Housing and built environment (only the ‘finger plan’)
2) Services
What is resilliance?
The capacity of individuals, businesses and systems within cities to survive, adapt and grow, no matter what kinds of Chronic stress and acute shocks they experience
Give an example of how chronic shocks can cause acute stress
Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans
How is Seattle going to overcome the effects of climate change?
- 70 year old sea wall replaced in 2017 which will be resistant to earthquakes an allow >9 metre sea level rise
- More energy efficiency and public transport to abide by Paris Agreement
How is Seattle resilient to Earthquakes?
- Magnitude 9 earthquake practiced in 2005
- Use of Hazard Identification Vulnerability Assessment
How has Seattle become more resilient to racial tensions?
Seattle equity initiative to integrate ethnic minorities because 75% African American renters cannot afford to live in the city
How has Seattle become more resilient to the 93% house price increase in 2008-2018?
A ‘comprehensive’ housing plan has been created
Why do urban areas emit less CO2?
Urban homes are smaller so less energy is required to heat them
How much more % CO2 in rural areas transport?
66% more CO2
What % of India’s trade does Mumbai handle?
30%
In what ways is Mumbai a cultural hub?
Home to the Bollywood movie industry
What was the Population of Mumbai in:
1970?
2016?
1970 = 5.9 million
2016 = 20.7 million
What proportion of Mumbai’s population live in Slums?
50%
What is the literacy rate in Mumbai’s slums?
60%
What proportion of slum residents in Mumbai have access to healthcare?
30%
How many people in Mumbai died in July 2005 Monsoon?
400 killed
How many languages are there spoken in Mumbai?
16 Indian languages
What environmental issues are there in Mumbai?
- <0.003 acres open space for 1000 people
- 7.5 million use trains each day
- 11,000 tonnes rubbish each day
- Area covered by the built environment has increased 4-fold since 1925
What has Mumbai done to become more resilient to climate change and flooding?
Greater Mumbai Disaster Management Action Plan after 2005 monsoon flooding
(Thought to be ineffective because of continued developments on floodplains)
How many people live in one sq mile in Dharavi, Mumbai?
1 million people
How many people get diphtheria and typhoid in Dharavi each DAY?
4,000 each DAY!
Why has Dharavi’s population grown?
3 railways and several major roads intersect there so there is lots of informal employment
What are agents of change in Mumbai aiming to do?
Become more SMART
Why is Mumbai an important city?
- 40% India’s trade
- 6% India’s GDP
- 25% industrial output
Under what classification of cites is Mumbai?
An Alpha world city in 2009
How much would a redevelopment of Dharavi cost?
$2.2 billion
What are some opportunities in Dharavi?
- Cottage industry is thriving
- Residents are being offered 300-foot new properties (but requires proof of residency which many don’t have)
When were swamps in Mumbai drianed?
In 1845, connecting 7 original islands
How bad in pollution in Mumbai?
NOx is 3x over legal limits
What proportion of people in London are ethnic minority?
44%. 50% by 2038
How much of world trade is overseen in London?
37%
How many foreign banks are there in London?
250 foreign banks
What statistical summaries inequality in London?
- Every £1 owned by bottom 10% the top 10% own £172
- Top 10th employees earn 4x more than bottom 10th
