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Phonology Flashcards

1
Q

Vowel Descriptive Parameters

A
  1. Height
  2. Backness
  3. Rounding

Height and Backness: Position of the tongue in mouth
Rounding: Rounding of lips

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2
Q

Consonant Descriptive Parameters

A
  1. Voicing
  2. Place of Articulation
  3. Manner of Articulation

Voicing: Voiced / Unvoiced –> Larynx vibrates
Place: From lips to glottal
Manner: Way in which the sound is produced

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3
Q

Key phonological Places of Articulation

A
  1. Labial (lips)
  2. Coronal (front of tongue)
  3. Dorsal (mid-back part of tongue)

Labial: Bilabial - Labiodental
Coronal: Dental - Alveolar-Palatal
Dorsal: Palatal - Uvular

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4
Q

Key Phonological Manners of Articulation

A
  1. Obstruent: Stops, Fricatives, Affricates
  2. Sonorants: Nasals, Liquids, Glides
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5
Q

Phonetics vs Phonology

A

Phonetics: Description + Transcription of speech sounds (phones), with a focus on ARTICULATION in introductory phonetics

Phonology: The distribution + organisation of speech sounds / phones

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6
Q

Phonological difference between [k] and [ʔ]

Phonological Difference =/= Phonetic Differences
Focus on DISTRIBUTION

A

[k] can occur anywhere stops can occur (no phonologically constrained distribution)

[ʔ] has a phonologically constrained distribution (can only occur in specific phonological environments)
* WDG: Seems to appear both word-medially and word-finally
* NDG: Only appears word-finally

Learning Point: In English, [ʔ] never occurs word-initially, even though stops can occur word-initially.
* The goal is thus to find a repeating and predictable description

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7
Q

Two levels of phonological analysis

A
  1. Surface / Allophonic Level: Represent something closer to articulation.
  2. Underlying / Phonemic Level: Represent something close to our perception of contrast
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8
Q

Phonological Descriptors: Brackets

A
  1. Surface / Allophonic: [n]
  2. Underlying / Phonemic: /n/

Generalisation
* slanted brackets: phonemes
* square brackets: phones

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9
Q

Contrast(ing)

A

The property of sounding fundamentally different to native speakers of the language.

The difference in sound is enough to signal a difference in words

eg: [n] vs [m]
* minimal pair: net vs met

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10
Q

Minimal Pairs

A

Pairs of words that only differ by one phone and have different meanings (semantically contrasting)

Allophones do not form minimal pairs. Minimal pairs show the presence of two separate phonemes.

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11
Q

Surface vs Underlying

A
  1. Surface: Closer to phonetics, is ‘concrete’ / linked to articulation
  2. Underlying: More ‘abstract’ / Groups articulations according to which are perceived as the ‘same’ in a language (nb: language specificity!)

Produce three different nasals [n] [n̪] [m]
Perceive two [n] [m]

One coronal nasal phoneme [n] can be realised in at least 2 different ways
- Alveolar allophone [n]
- Dental allophone [n̪]

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12
Q

Phones and Phonemes

A

Phones: speech sounds enacted by phonetic articulations

Phonemes: the “underlying” phonological structure

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13
Q

Allophony

A
  1. Some phonemes are always realised by the same phone (cf: underlying –> surface)
  2. Many phonemes can be realised by multiple allophones
  3. Allophones of one phoneme do not contrast with each other (they do not signal a difference in words, and we typically do not perceive a difference between them)
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14
Q

Realisational Diagrams

A

Represents the realisation of the phoneme as its different allophones (if applicable)

eg:
* /m/ –> [m]
* /n/ –> [n]
–> [n̪]

p.s: since the alveolar occurs in more environments, the phoneme symbol is /n/

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15
Q

Phonemic Principle

A
  1. The allophones of one phoneme are in complementary distribution (we also expect them to be phonetically similar)
  2. If two phones belong to different phonemes they will be in parallel distribution and will be semantically constrastive
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16
Q

Types of Distribution

A
  1. Complementary (non-overlapping / predictable): Will never occur in the same phonological environment (allophones)
  2. Parallel (overlapping / non-predictable): Can regularly occur in the same phonological environment (phonemes)

Learning point: The goal of phonological analysis is to identify and describes the phonological environments in which each allophone is realised in complementary distribution.

Applicable for ‘classical allophony’ –> Ignores the effects of variation

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17
Q

Free Variation

A

Two or more phones being realised from one phoneme in the same phonological environment (undermining the concept of complementary distribution in allophony)

cf: Phonological rules. Free variation can also be understood as optional / variable rules.
* WDG is an example of an optional / variable rule (sociolinguistically conditioned)

‘Free’ might be a misnomer as free variation is usually sociolinguistically conditioned rather than phonologically conditioned.

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18
Q

Phonological Rule Notation

A

/…/ –> […] / …_…

  • /…/ the phoneme(s) involved (input)
  • –> “is realised as”
  • […] derived allophone (output)
  • /… _ … in the environment (describes environment)

Other useful symbols
* _ segment in question
* # word boundary

N.B. Multiple phonological rules can apply to a single segment

The phonological environment for the default allophone is implicit. Only non-default environments need to be described

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19
Q

Phonological Rules Example: Stop Aspiration

A

/p,t,k/ –> [pʰ,tʰ,kʰ] / # _

OR

[stop -aspiration] –> [stop +aspiration] / # _

Generally, “classes” of phonemes will undergo the same realisational patterns in the same phonological environments

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20
Q

Phonological Rules: Productivity

A

Phonological rules will be productive in any given language (apply to all words in which the phonological environment is the present)

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21
Q

Assimilation

A

One segment takes on the properties of a neighbouring segment (cf: phonetic properties of vowels and consonants)

Examples:
* [C -voice] –> [C +voice] / V_V (Voicing to assimilate to intervocalic environment)
* /n/ –> [n̪] / _ θ,ð (dentalisation to assimilate to succeeding dental fricatives)

Learning point:
* Assimilation is akin to “making things easier to pronounce” in phonology

22
Q

Assimilation Example: Dorsal Fricatives in ScEng

A
  • [ç] occurs in (e.g) dreich and nicht
  • [x] occurs in (e.g) loch, Lachlan, McCulloch

Conclusion: [ç] occurs following front high vowels and [x] occurs elsewhere

Rule:
/x/ –> [ç] / ɪ, i __ (or any other front high vowel)

Learning Point:
Velar place of articulation is slightly fronted to palatal to accomodate the preceding front high vowel

23
Q

Scottish Vowel Length Rule

A

/i,ʉ/ –> [iː,ʉː] / __v,ð,z,r,# (not the full rule)

Goal of phonological rules: represent patterns concisely and generally

24
Q

Syllabic Phonology

A
  • An example of suprasegmental phonology (operating “above” the level of segments)
  • Multiple segments can be grouped together to form one syllable
25
Syllabic Phonology Observation: Vowel-Syllable correlation
The number of syllables largely (but not entirely) coincides with the number of vowels Exceptions can be caused by: * digraphs * syllabic consonants
26
Syllabic Structure
A syllable can be split into: 1. Onset 2. Rhyme / Rime Rhyme can be further split into: 1. Nucleus (obligatory) 2. Coda (optional)
27
Syllable Tree Diagrams
Similar to syntax | Common Notations: * σ : Syllable * O : onset * R : rhyme * N : nucleus * C : coda Polysyllabic words can be represented as the sum of multiple syllable tree diagrams
28
Open / Closed syllables
Open: Syllables without a coda Closed: Syllables with a coda
29
Segment - Syllable Generalisations
1. O and C typically contain Consonants 2. N typically contain Vowels Exception: Consonants can occur in the N as syllabic consonants (marked with the diacritic [ ̩] )
30
Eng Syllabic Consonants
1. Only nasals and approximants (=sonorants) can freely be syllabic consonants in Eng 2. Syllabic consonants cannot occur in the 'main' syllable (or the syllable with **primary stress**) of the word.
31
Phonotactics: Maximal Onset Principle
If a segment can be in an onset, it will be in an onset. *A language universal principle (not language-specific)
32
Syllable Boundaries
Marked with . Governed by MOP
33
Syllable-structure-driven Allophony
Example: light [l] vs dark [ɫ] (velarised) * [l] occurs before a vowel * [ɫ] occurs before a consonant or # these observations only hold in monosyllabic word data, but can be generalised over polysllabic words. l-darkening rule: /l/ --> [ɫ] / __(rhyme)
34
WDG wrt Syllabification
Optional rule of t-glotalling: /t/ --> [ʔ] / __ (coda) This rule sufficiently describes NDG, but What about WDG (forms like platter)? * must consider stress
35
Constraints
Syllable structure constrains the patterns of where segments can occur in words. Constrains are noted with small capitals eg: *CODA-h /h/ is forbidden in English Codas *ONSET-ŋ /ŋ/ is forbidden in Eng Onsets
36
Phonotactics
Study of where segments can occur and how they can combine. eg: Eng Vowel Phonotactics Many Eng V can occur in both final closed and open syllables. Some can only occur in closed final syllables, giving rise to the constraint *OPENSYLLABLE-V (where ‘V’ = ɪ, ɛ etc)
37
Phonological Gaps
1. Systemic / Systematic: Impossible words, sequences forbidden by the phonological grammar 2. Accidental: Segments not forbidden by the phonological grammar, but just happen to not occur Accidental gaps can be filled but we do not expect systemic gaps to be filled.
38
Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP)
Sonority is expected to increase from the edge of a syllable towards its nucleus and decrease from the nucleus to the other edge. * In onsets, sonority increases L>R * In codas, sonority increases R>L
39
Sonority Hierarchy
Sonority correlates to some extent with loudness / openess (of the oral tract). In increasing sonority 1. Oral stops (plosives) 2. Fricatives 3. Nasals 4. Approximants 5. Vowels
40
SSP Eng Exceptions
1. /s/ can violate SSP in onset consonant clusters (/s/ also allows the only triconsonantal onset clusters) 2. Sequences of stops in the coda can violate the SSP (via a sonority plateau) N.B. English-specific phonotactics can also prevent segments allowed by the SSP (eg onset /tl/) from occurring.
41
SSP / MOP Interactions
When the SSP and MOP are in conflict, SSP "wins out"
42
Phonological Stress
Stressed syllables are likely to be **longer** and **louder** than unstressed syllables, usually marked by a **movement in pitch** (a phonetic account of stress) Native speakers will have intuitions about which syllables are stressed in words In Eng, stress is contrastive
43
Types of stress
1. Primary stress: The 'most stressed' syllable in the word, marked [ ˈ ] at the start of the syllable or with [ ́ ] an acute accent on the nucleus of the syllable. 2. Secondary stress: Indicated by [ ˌ ] or [ ̀ ]. A word can have multiple secondary stresses.
44
Predicting Stress
1. Free stress: No patterning to the stress, making the stress essentially unpredictable 2. Fixed stress: Fundamentally predictable stress patterns. N.B. The binary distinction between the two is more of a cline. Even free stress languages can have some predictability to where stresses tend to fall in words. Fixed stress languages can have words that do not follow their stress patterns.
45
Free Stress
In free stress languages, words can be **stressed on any syllable** Learners will also have to learn which syllable is stressed in each new word.
46
Fixed Stress
A key focus on fixed stress languages is the **placement of primary stress** eg: Turkish stresses words on the final syllable, regardless of the number of suffixes added to the word (cf: Turkish is an agglutinative language).
47
Phonological Rules: Stress
Notation: * σ --> syllable * [ ́ ] --> stress eg: Turkish Stress Rule σ --> σ ́ /__#
48
English Syllables / Syllable Weight
1. Heavy Syllables: Heavy syllables have * Long Vowel * Diphthong * Short Vowel + Coda Consonant In their rhyme 2. Light Syllables: * Short Vowel In their rhyme **Heavy syllables tend to attract primary stress in Eng**
49
Predicting noun stress using syllable weight
In polysyllabic **nouns**, if the penultimate syllable is heavy, we expect primary stress on it. If the penultimate syllable is light, we expect primary stress on the **antepenultimate** syllable. English N stress rules: σ --> σ' / L**H**L, **L**LL
50
Eng Verb stress rules
English nouns **disprefer final stress**, but the generalisation does not hold for verbs. 1. Disyllabic Words: Common for final syllable to be stressed, **only if the syllable is heavy** 2. Polysyllabic words: Final primary stress is not unusual (unlike nouns)
51
WDG wrt stress
Original Optional rule of t-glotalling: /t/ --> [ʔ] / __ (coda) This rule sufficiently describes NDG, but What about WDG (forms like platter)? Refined rule of t-glottaling: /t/ --> [ʔ] / __ (coda) and: in the onset of an unstressed medial syllable

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