Philosopy Of Science Flashcards
what are the types of scientific reasoning?
empiricism
induction
what is empiricism (scientific reasoning)?
the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. it emphasises the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, int he form of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori - based on experience
what is induction (scientific reasoning)?
LAW - all swans are white
All the swans i’ve seen are white, therefore all swans are white.
the sun has risen in the past, therefore the sun will rise tomorrow.
–> Problem: black swans exist!
HUME AND THE PROBLEM OF INDUCTION
all scientific knowledge is based on inductive reasoning, but induction is not a justifiable way of producing knowledge. broad - induction is ‘the glory of science and the scandal of philosophy’: glory - planes can fly, scandal - we can’t figure out why
What is Popper’s solution to the problem of induction?
Popper’s deductive falsification:
- Theory: all swans are white (H)
- Observable consequence: every swan I see will be white (O)
- If we observe the opposite of O, then we can falsify H
- Therefore, theories are never confirmed true. There either survive testing and are corroborated, or they are falsified
example: H: prozac works significantly better. we falsify they null hypothesis.
Popper’s hypothesis testing shares the same logical structure as Fisher’s classical statistical hypothesis testing.
What is Kuhn’s problem with Popper?
there is no falsification!
Durham/Quine thesis: we never test hypothesis in isolation.
“Anomalous experiences may not be identified with falsifying ones. indeed, I doubt that the latter exist. If any and every failure to fit were ground for theory rejection, all theories ought to be rejected at all times.”
There is confusion regarding the word ‘paradigm’: Wittgenstein said we don’t need to know what characteristics a ‘game’ or ‘chair’ have because there are none. although knowing, for example, that some games share some attributes can allow us to recognise a previous unobserved activity a game, as it bears a ‘family’ resemblance
what is paradigmatic science?
Normal science: achievement sufficiently unprecedented to attract an enduring group of adherents away from competing theories. sufficiently open-ended to leave problems for redefined group of practitioners to resolve.
normal science is ‘mopping up’ and ‘puzzle solving’. the rules of solving the puzzle are not questioned. paradigms ‘limit both the nature of acceptable solutions and the steps by which they are to be obtained’.
Detection of an anomaly created a ‘model crisis’. the paradigm is then adjusted so the anomaly becomes expected. revolution of the model occurs.
what is the resistance to paradigm change?
Bruner and postman ask subjects to identify playing cards, majority of which were normal, some were anomalies e.g. red six of spades.
Many anomalous cases were identified as normal.
Given more time, anomalies were identified. We assume things fit our pre-defined expectations.
Incommensurability
“Scientists often speak of the “lightening flash” that “inundates” a previously obscure puzzle, enabling its components to be seen in a new way that for the first time permits a solution” (Kuhn SSR)
Does Kuhn make science irrational? Does scientific community accept/reject theories based on their point of view? If so, then studying science involves studying sociology, history and psychology.
Pessimistic meta-induction
the history of science s a graveyard of dead theories (Laudan 1981)
Therefore, our current theories will die too.
Is this a deductive or inductive argument?
What are the arguments in support of it?
What are the arguments against it?
