Philosophy Final Part 2

Question 1

difference between thinking and reasoning

Answer 1

reasoning is when you consider reasons for or against a claim

Question 2

inference

Answer 2

reach line of reasoning used in an argument

Question 3

argument

Answer 3

putting a line of reasoning into words using premises so people can follow it

Question 4

standard form

Answer 4

p1, p2,…

c1, c2, ….

Question 5

deductive argument

Answer 5

conclusion is true if premises are true

Question 6

inductive argument

Answer 6

adequate support is provided for conclusion, but its not guaranteed

Question 7

how to identify missing premises

Answer 7

search for a premise that:

• the author could be taking for granted
• makes the argument as good as possible

Question 8

truth

Answer 8

correspondence of reality with reality itself

Question 9

empirical

Answer 9

can be settled by observation

i.e. observed by senses or sciences

Question 10

non-empirical

Answer 10

cannot be known through observations i.e its always wrong to lie, all bachelors are male

Question 11

generality

Answer 11

has to do with the size of the circle within which things are encompassed

Question 12

vagueness

Answer 12

how fuzzy are the boundaries

Question 13

ambiguity

Answer 13

is it unclear what the term means (i.e. borderline cases, baldness)

Question 14

loaded language

Answer 14

certain terms have positive or negative connotations

i.e. thrifty vs cheap

Question 15

strawmanning

Answer 15

trying to refute an argument someone didn’t mean to say (assuming they’re making the worst possible argument)

Question 16

referential ambiguity

Answer 16

words can be interpreted in two different ways

Question 17

grammatical ambiguity

Answer 17

sentence can be interpreted in two different ways

Question 18

logical strength

Answer 18

how well the premises would support the conclusion if they were true

Question 19

sound

Answer 19

premises would support the conclusion if they were true

Question 20

cogent

Answer 20

argument that’s premises are convincing to the audience and they realized its logically strong

Question 21

deductive validity

Answer 21

if the premises were true, they would guarantee the truth of the conclusion

Question 22

modus ponens

Answer 22

if P then Q
P
Q

Question 23

modus tollens

Answer 23

if P then Q
not Q

Not P

Question 24

T structure

Answer 24

premises only support the conclusion when taken together

Question 25

V structure

Answer 25

premises provide individual support for the conclusion

Question 26

what it takes for a deductive argument to be invalid

Answer 26

the conclusion does not follow from the premises, assuming they are true

Question 27

sentential logic

Answer 27

replacing simple sentences with placeholders but keeping sentential operators

Question 28

fallacies

Answer 28

general categories of bad argument that are commonly used

Question 29

begging the question

Answer 29

attempting to establish the conclusion of an argument by using the conclusion as a premise

Question 30

false dichotomy

Answer 30

wrongly assuming there are only two alternatives to consider

Question 31

red herring

Answer 31

deliberately raising an irrelevant issue during an argument

Question 32

virtue/guilt by association

Answer 32

accepting/rejecting a claim because of the wonderful/problematic people associated with it

Question 33

appeal to the person (ad hominem)

Answer 33

rejecting a claim by criticizing the person who makes it rather than the claim itself

Question 34

equivocation

Answer 34

lack of logic strength due to ambiguity (i.e. phrase “no man”)

Question 35

appeal to ignorance

Answer 35

arguing that the lack of evidence against a claim establishes the claim

Question 36

appeal to tradition/novelty

Answer 36

arguing that a claim must be true because it is part of tradition

Question 37

appeal to authority/popularity

Answer 37

duh

Question 38

anecdotal evidence

Answer 38

using anecdotes as data to establish a claim, typically too few in number and too subject to selection effects

Question 39

slippery slope

Answer 39

assuming without good reason that taking a step will lead to further, undesirable steps

Question 40

decision-point fallacy

Answer 40

arguing that because a line of distinction cannot be drawn at any point in the process, there are no differences or gradiations in the proccess

Question 41

burden of proof

Answer 41

when a controversial claim is put forward, the person making the claim is expected to offer reasons for it

Question 42

counter-arguments

Answer 42

as argument intended to show that the conclusion of another argument is false, does not refute the argument

Question 43

method of absurd examples

Answer 43

showing that an argument form is not valid by providing an instance of that form in which the premises could be true while the conclusion is false

Question 44

descriptive statistics

Answer 44

recording and analyzing data about observations

easy for it to be misleading because you have to choose what to focus on

Question 45

argumentative statistics

Answer 45

making inferences from samples to unobserved populations

i.e. staistical syllogisms and inductive generalizations

Question 46

resistance to outlier effects

Answer 46

median and mode

Question 47

inductive generalization

Answer 47

arguing from features of an unoberserved population to features of an observed population (n% of observed G objects are F, therefore n% of all G objects are F)

Question 48

statistical syllogism

Answer 48

arguing for a claim about a sample based on features of a population (n% of G objects are F, therefore a given G object is n% likely to be F)

Question 49

cum hoc ergo propter hoc

Answer 49

“with the thing therefore because of it

the fallacy of assuming that because two factors are correlated, there must be a causal connection between the two

Question 50

post hoc ergo propter hoc

Answer 50

“after the thing therefore because of that”

the fallacy of assuming that because B happens after A, A must have caused B

Question 51

mere chance

Answer 51

a type of misleading correlation in which the correlation is a complete accident

Question 52

p-value

Answer 52

the percent chance of getting the result by accident if the null hypothesis were true

Question 53

reverse causation

Answer 53

swimmer’s body illusion

Question 54

common cause

Answer 54

the events were caused by an outside force

Question 55

side effect (placebo)

Answer 55

when A and B are correlated due to a mere side effect of one of the factors
placebo: a positive effect arising from the expectation that an intervention will be effective

Question 56

regression to the mean

Answer 56

the tendency, when points lie outside the mean, for adjacent points to lie closer to the mean

Question 57

confounding variables

Answer 57

a third factor responsible for the correlation between A and B, where not being aware of the factor might make one think that they are causally related

Question 58

contributory cause

Answer 58

event that helps X occur but is neither necessary nor suficient

Question 59

primary cause

Answer 59

the cause that stands out as the most out of the ordinary

Question 60

causally necessary conditon

Answer 60

a condition that is required for the event to be casued

Question 61

sufficient condition

Answer 61

a condition that guarantees the event will occur

Question 62

proximate cause

Answer 62

a cause that is immediately responsible for the event

Question 63

distal cause

Answer 63

a cause of the event that is responsible only through intermediate causes

Question 64

Disjunctive Syllogism

Answer 64

Either P or Q
Not Q
P

Question 65

Hypothetical Syllogism

Answer 65

If P, then Q
If Q, then R
If P, then R