Philosophy Final Part 1

Question 1

System 1

Answer 1

feels automatic and effortless
can’t be turned off
source of impressions, feelings, intuitions and emotions

Question 2

System 2

Answer 2

voluntarily controlled
chosen
associated with dilated pupils and accelerated heart rate
come with feeling of effort

Question 3

System 1 and 2 conflict

Answer 3

system 2 has to override system 1’s automatic reactions, but wrong impression doesn’t always go away
i.e. when you know the lines are the same length, but one looks longer than the other

Question 4

cognitive illusions

Answer 4

system 2 has to override initial reaction of system 1

Question 5

confabulation

Answer 5

system 2 creates reasonable-seeming explanations for unreasonable inclinations generated by system 1

Question 6

cognitive laziness

Answer 6

system 1 suggests an initial conclusion, system 2 may come up with a solution but you are already satisfied

Question 7

rationality

Answer 7

being lazy and not using system 2 is a matter of rationality

Question 8

intelligence

Answer 8

something measured, IQ test, but doesn’t determine how prone you are to biases

Question 9

anchor-and-adjust heuristic

Answer 9

when making a judgement or estimate along a scale, we unknowingly use a reference point suggested to us as a mental anchor

Question 10

implicit association tests

Answer 10

measure levels of cognitive difficulty when performing tasks with category

Question 11

base rates

Answer 11

chance of a random person being a certain thing

Question 12

heuristic

Answer 12

a cognitive shortcut used to bypass a more effortful type of reasoning

Question 13

anecdotal reasoning

Answer 13

small samples are inherently weak as evidence, observations are not random samples

Question 14

selection effects

Answer 14

when our overall impression is biased because the cases we observe have been selected by a process that filters them out

Question 15

availability cascades

Answer 15

when the media’s focus on a topic and the emotional reaction of the public to that topic feed on each other, resulting in a cycle of escalating intensity

Question 16

echo chambers

Answer 16

when our sources of information and commentary have all been selected to support our opinions and preferences

Question 17

survivorship bias

Answer 17

i.e. knowing a lot of people who smoke and thinking smoking is safe, forgetting that many who smoked have died

Question 18

publication bias & file drawer effect

Answer 18

not everything is published, researchers file away results they aren’t interested in

Question 19

familiarity effects

Answer 19

the subconscious inclination to think something is true just because you are familiar with it

Question 20

salient hypothesis bias

Answer 20

when observations that support a hypothesis bring it to mind, but observations that disconfirm it do not bring it to mind

Question 21

explanation freeze

Answer 21

when one seeks to explain something and only a small number of explanations come to mind, resulting in an overestimate of the probability of those explanations

Question 22

law of large numbers

Answer 22

as we increase our sample size, we get closer to the true population values

Question 23

cognitive ease/familiarity

Answer 23

assuming that if an answer is familiar, it must be true

Question 24

evidence for the familiarity effect

Answer 24

people prefer how they look in the mirror to pictures

seeing a company’s name induces us to find it more familiar and positive

Question 25

serial position effect

Answer 25

people tend to remember the last part of events the most | i.e. patients rated the procedure with more pain at the end as more painful

Question 26

myside bias

Answer 26

believing things that you have some attachment to, persist in believing them without good evidence, seeking out evidence that confirms them ignoring evidence against

Question 27

evidence of myside bias

Answer 27

70% of people in a survey said they are less likely than average to get divorced, only 2% of students in a survey considered themselves worse than average in leadership ability

Question 28

superiority illusion

Answer 28

people tend to think they are better than they really are

Question 29

optimism bias

Answer 29

when people are asked about things that might happen to them in the future, they tend to be optimistic

Question 30

self-serving bias

Answer 30

people believe their successes come from their stable attributes, and that their failures come from situational factors

Question 31

belief persistence

Answer 31

hanging on to beliefs for no good reason

Question 32

selective search

Answer 32

seeking out confirming evidence and finding problems with disconfirming evidence

Question 33

salient hypothesis vs. selective search

Answer 33

salient hypothesis: if you see conflicting evidence, you don't consider your hypothesis selective search: you only seek out confirming evidence and find problems with conflicting evidence

Question 34

cognitive dissonance

Answer 34

the mental discomfort that comes from making changes in one's beliefs/attitudes

Question 35

makes-sense reasoning

Answer 35

assuming that since something makes sense, it must be true

Question 36

conformity effect

Answer 36

tendency for one's opinions to conform to other individuals in a group

Question 37

in-group bias

Answer 37

tendency to hold positive opinions about members and beliefs of a group simply because it is my group

Question 38

why are some forms of conforming belief rational

Answer 38

sometimes it gets people closer to the right answer | i.e. average of guesses is accurate than the average guess

Question 39

groupthink

Answer 39

state of collective reasoning where a lack of dissenting voices makes the group's decision reflect a false sense of consensus or confidence

Question 40

fundamental attribution error

Answer 40

tendency to ascribe behaviors and outcomes to stable attributes of individuals rather than chance factors

Question 41

hindsight bias

Answer 41

tendency to see an event as having been predictable even when there was no good way to predict it

Question 42

hindsight bias

Answer 42

tendency to see an event as having been predictable even when there was no good way to predict it

Question 43

pattern seeking

Answer 43

we are oversensitive to patterns in random data

Question 44

cluster effect

Answer 44

specific type of pattern-seeking where people think that random distributions over an area are clustering

Question 45

just-world bias

Answer 45

tendency to assume that people get what they deserve

Question 46

how can hindsight bias lead to overconfidence

Answer 46

causes us to think that we were ore accurate than we were when predicting an outcome, leading to more, less-accurate predictions in the future

Question 47

how to counteract just-world bias

Answer 47

imagine yourself in someone else's situation

Question 48

blindspot bias/GI Joe fallacy

Answer 48

simple knowing about the existence of biases doesn't help us avoid them

Question 49

active open-mindedness

Answer 49

allowing for consideration of new possibilities, new goals and evidence against possibilities that seem strong

Question 50

trigger action plan

Answer 50

how to avoid biases | depends on trigger of noticing bias

Question 51

TAP explanation freeze

Answer 51

notice: trying to explain something action: think of three or more hypotheses

Question 52

TAP representative heuristic

Answer 52

Notice: you are pattern-matching individuals to a stereotype, you are thinking with simple plurals action: stop, demand plurals be clarified

Question 53

TAP anchor and adjust

Answer 53

notice: need value on a scale action: check for anchor, adjust

Question 54

TAP ingroup bias

Answer 54

notice: members of outgroup seem evil action: reject moralizing explanations of their views, try an idealogical turing test

Question 55

TAP hindsight bias

Answer 55

notice: prediction situation action: clarify predictions and endpoints, track outcomes

Question 56

attachment (TAP Myside)

Answer 56

notice: feel need for evidence, happy when conforming, mad when contrary action: step back, look at evidence, consider opposite

Question 57

Soldier mindset (TAP myside)

Answer 57

Notice: feel need to defend view action: image opposite defended by loved on, steel-man opposing view, reframe winning

Question 58

belief overkill (TAP myside)

Answer 58

notice: when every consider against a belief seems to go the same way action: isolate each belief

Question 59

steelman

Answer 59

come up with the best possible version of the opposing view and defend it with the best arguments

Question 60

ideological turing test

Answer 60

convincing someone that you hold the opposite viewpoint

Question 61

calibrated probability judgements

Answer 61

judgements that have been checked, to see whether our confidence intervals match track record of success

Question 62

four cognitive virtues of rationality

Answer 62

1. patience (don't jump to conclusions) 2. humility (fight overconfidence with uncertainty) 3. fairness (scout mindset) 4. vigilance (be on lookout for bias)