Philip's Foreign Policy (The Mediterranean) (1)

Question 1

Why did Philip feel so strongly about fighting Turks and other Muslims? Why did the people of Spain feel so strongly against the Turks and Muslims?

Answer 1

• he was chief defender of the Catholic faith and could consider no cause more righteous
• with their tradition of the Reconquest they were natural enemies

Question 2

Why was Philip rarely in a position to concentrate all his efforts on dealing with the Muslims?

Answer 2

• problems in other areas of his vast empire

- lack of money

Question 3

Due to Philip not being able to actively deal with the Turks/ Muslims very often, what did his policy mainly focus on?

Answer 3

• defence
• fortifying coasts
• doing whatever he could to help maintain the safety of those areas he ruled in the western and central areas of the Med

Question 4

What threat of the Turkish navy did Philip perceive?

Answer 4

• they controlled eastern med
• threat to central and western areas
• fears raised that a large Turkish fleet would be on the offensive
• possibility of communication and access to the foothold in North Africa and thus could easily access Sicily and Naples etc

Question 5

What was the perceived threat from North Africa?

Answer 5

• Philips held bases on coast eg. Tunis and Algiers

- from which Barbary corsairs could attack shipping and raid coasts of Spain itself

Question 6

What was the threat from the Moriscos in Spain?

Answer 6

• might have co-operated with any Muslim invasion of Spain

Question 7

Was the fight against Turks/ Muslims a constant crusade?

Answer 7

• no, it ebbed and flowed due to Philip’s involvement in other areas across his vast territories

Question 8

What was the purpose of the 1560 expedition to Tripoli/ Was it successful?

Answer 8

• to help protect central Med
• to defend Spain’s North African outposts, eastern coasts, trade and communications in the western Med
• all that was accomplished was the capture of Djerba island - soon lost again
• reputation suffered
• half fleet lost (42/80 vessels lost, 18,000 men)
• 10,000 Spanish prisoners - were humiliatingly paraded through Istanbul
• freak storm in 1562 destroyed 25 more galleys and lost 4,000 men leaving the navy nearly halved in strength in the space of two years
• it was doomed: took 6 months to assemble fleet, lost element of surprise as concentration of ships in Sicily was noticed and fortifications repaired

Question 9

How did Tripoli have a positive impact on Philip’s policy against Islam? What were the drawbacks?

Answer 9

• led him to revise strategy
• realised need to possess powerful navy if he was going to have real success
• Spanish dockyards were fully occupied in building new fleet over next few years
• was a drain on Castilian economy
• time and money spent repairing the damage - Muslim pirates attacked Spain - Granada was a prime target for attack and in one raid in 1561: 4,000 prisoners were taken

Question 10

In 1563, how did Philip’s testing of the new fleet against the Barbary corsairs go? What other success followed?

Answer 10

• sent into action swiftly and efficiently
• Philip acted decisively
• Oran was saved (Hasan Pasha defeated)
• 1565: victory over Turks besieging Malta, Knights of St John held out for five months (it was a close call, Spanish regime and brilliant Grand Master of the Knights Templar - le Valette - was taken by surprise and only saved by intervention from viceroy of Naples - Don Garcia)

Question 11

From 1570 why did Philip decide more forceful methods were needed?

Answer 11

• Muslim governor of Algiers took Tunis from a supporter of Philip and left Spanish garrison at La Goleta isolated

Question 12

Why was the Holy League formed?

Answer 12

• to send an expedition to help Cyprus against the Turks invasion

Question 13

Who formed the members of the Holy League?

Answer 13

• Spain
• Venice
• Genoa
• Pope
• other Italien states

Question 14

Why did Philip have his reservations about the Holy League? Why did he join and support them?

Answer 14

• defending Cyprus wasn’t seen as a priority
• Philip was concerned with regaining Tunis and conquering Algiers
• suspicious of plans of Venice and Pope
• would have lost some support from the Italien states if he hadn’t joined

Question 15

Who led the fleet of the Holy League? Was he a good leader?

Answer 15

• Don John of Austria (Philip’s illegitimate half brother)

- yes, was young and charismatic and united the disparate forces

Question 16

Where did the Holy League fleet sail to? Were they evenly matched?

Answer 16

• sailed east across Med
• met Turkish fleet at Lepanto
• yes, sides were evenly matched

Question 17

What brought victory to the Spanish at Lepanto? What were the results?

Answer 17

• Don John broke enemy in centre of formation
• Turkish admiral was killed (Ali Pasha)
• thousands of Turkish soldiers/ sailors killed/ imprisoned
• most ships sunk/ captured (30,000 Turkish troops died, 195/230 galleys of previously invincible fleet sank)

Question 18

Why was the initial rejoicing in Christian Europe short lived?

Answer 18

• not followed up by success because it was late in the campaigning year (inability to transform naval victory into territorial gains, frontiers had reached natural limit)
• Ottoman control in Cyprus was unchallenged and empire remained untouched
• victors themselves had suffered serious losses in men and ships (just 12 galleys but 9000 soldiers dead)

Question 19

Although the Turks captured Cyprus a few months after Lepanto, what was a success of the battle?

Answer 19

• never again was a large Turkish fleet seen again in the western Med - arguably ended Ottoman naval supremacy

Question 20

In what period did the Turkish threat diminish?

Answer 20

1578 - 1597

Question 21

When did the Holy League break up? Why did Venice’s peace with the Turks cause Philip problems?

Answer 21

• broke up when Venice returned to its usual method of dealing with the Turks (negotiation rather than fighting)
• Philip was left with the cost of the Med fleet (60,000 ducats a month)

Question 22

In 1573, Tunis was retaken for a short time. (8000 Spaniards and Italians defended city) Why wasn’t Philip in a position to do anymore?

Answer 22

• had neither time nor money

- was now fully involved in dealing with Protestant challenge in England, France and especially the Netherlands

Question 23

Why did both Spain and the Turks become prepared to make peace?

Answer 23

• Philip looked to northern Europe
• Turks became more concerned with situation in east and fight against Persia
• by mid-1570s: military stalemate reached
• growing economic crisis put both countries under pressure - Ottomans had a weak currency and several peasant rebellions broke out

Question 24

In 1578, peace was made with the Ottomans - how? Was this a well-timed decision?

Answer 24

• number of truces and treaties were arranged and were regularly renewed during the remaining years of Philip’s reign
• it was a successful choice, recognising that the Turks were not in a position to aggravate further
• could be argued that it damaged his reputation as the truce had to be made as a result of previous failures but overall a good political decision

Question 25

The Scottish-Protestant rebellion produced Anglo-French confrontation. Why did Philip actively prevent the Pope from excommunicating Elizabeth?

Answer 25

• he feared French influence of Mary Queen of Scots if she was to seize the throne

Question 26

Why was the Ottoman army so feared?

Answer 26

• powerful navy
• elite corps of janissaries
• could wreak havoc by raiding Italien and Spanish coats and enslaving captives

Question 27

What happened after Malta was regained by the Spanish?

Answer 27

• converted Grand Harbour into one of the most heavily defended fortresses in Med
• 9000 knights were led by La Valette
• Malta faced 180 Ottoman ships and 30,000 soldiers (attack was not as strong as could have been, errors in military technique, defenders were able to resist attacks for almost 4 months)
• rule was maintained

Question 28

Why was the regaining of Malta so strategically/ generally important?

Answer 28

• early 1520s: Rhodes fell to the Ottomans
• if Malta had been captured it would have been greatly beneficial for the Turks in fulfilling their objective of securing the western Med
• survival of Malta gave Spain renewed confidence and the programme of naval reconstruction in Barcelona, Naples and Sicily was intensified

Question 29

How many troops etc belonged to the Holy League? Did they have good leadership?

Answer 29

• assembled 208 galleys, 100 ships, 50,000 troops, 4500 light cavalry
• excellent leaders - collaborated willingly and effectively
• Spanish fleet commanded by Don John
• papal galleys led by Colonna
• Venetian army led by Venier

Question 30

Who led Tripoli expedition of 1560?

Answer 30

• Duke of Medinaceli

- Admiral Doria