Phase 2 KPH - Week 3 (Breastfeeding) Flashcards
Breasts
- Accessory organs of the female reproductive system
- Develop during puberty
- Mounds of variable size and shape
- Lie on the front of the thorax, superficial to pectoralis major, extend up to axilla
- Contain glandular, fatty and connective tissues
List the structures of the breast
- Alveoli
- Mammary glands
- Lobes
- Lobules
- Lactiferous ducts
- Lactiferous sinuses
- Nipple
- Lymphatic vessels
Describe the structure and function of mammary glands
- Composed of alveoli
- Enlarge during pregnancy, atrophy when breast-feeding ceases
- Form 15-20 lobes that radiate around the nipple
- Each lobe contains many smaller lobules, which end in dozens of tiny bulbs called acini
What is the function of the alveoli of the breast?
To produce milk (initially colostrum)
Describe the function of the lactiferous ducts
Drain the milk (or colostrum) from the lobes to the centre of the nipple where they open at the lactiferous sinuses
Describe the path taken by milk in the breast
Alveoli -> lobes -> lactiferous ducts -> lactiferous sinuses -> nipple
Describe the structure of the nipple
- In centre
- Mostly composed of smooth muscle fibres
- Surrounded by pigmented area of skin = areola
- Almost unpigmented before first menstruation, pigmentation increases around puberty then turns pink -> brown during pregnancy
- Numerous sebaceous glands in areolae (independent of hair follicles except at periphery of areolae) = Montgomery tubercles
- Secretion of areolar glands prevent irritation of nipple during nursing
Retromammary space
Layer of loose connective tissue between breast and pectoral fascia, potential space, often used in reconstructive plastic surgery
Describe the connective tissue stroma of the breast
- Supporting structure which surrounds the mammary glands
- Fibrous and fatty component
- Fibrous stroma condenses to form suspensory ligaments (of Cooper)
What is the function of the suspensory ligaments (of Cooper)
- Attach and secure breast to dermis and underlying pectoral fascia
- Separate the secretory lobules of the breast
Describe the lymphatic drainage of the breasts. Why is this significant?
- Drain into axillary lymph nodes
- Form a route for breast cancer to spread
Describe the vasculature of the breasts
- Arterial supply to medial part = internal thoracic artery
- Arterial supply to lateral part = lateral thoracic and thoracoacromial branches and lateral mammary branches
- Veins drain into axillary and internal thoracic veins
Describe the nerve supply of the breasts
- Innervated by anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th to 6th intercostal nerves
- Contain sensory and autonomic nerve fibres (autonomic regulate smooth muscle and blood vessel tone)
Describe the histology of the breast
- Ducts are lined by inner layer of cuboidal to columnar epithelial cells and an outer layer of myoepithelial cells
- Connective tissue within lobules is composed of fibroblasts in a background of collagen and acid muscins with histiocytes and occasional lymphocytes
- Interlobular stroma is hypocellular and composed of fibroadipose tissue
Define lactation
Secretion of milk from mammary glands and period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young
Define galactopoiesis
Maintenance of milk production, requires prolactin
Why is oxytocin needed in lactation?
Triggers milk let-down (ejection) reflex in response to suckling
When does development of breasts for lactation begin during pregnancy?
From week 18
Role of progesterone in lactation
- Influences growth in size of alveoli ad lobes
- High levels inhibit lactation before birth
- Levels drop after birth, triggers the onset of copious milk production
Role of oestrogen in lactation
- Stimulates milk duct system to grow and differentiate
- High levels inhibit lactation
- Levels drop at delivery, remain low for first several months of breastfeeding
Which type of contraception should be avoided by breastfeeding women and why?
- Oestrogen-based contraception should be avoided
- Spike in oestrogen could reduce mother’s milk supply
Describe the role of prolactin in lactation
- Contributes to increased growth and differentiation of alveoli
- Influences differentiation of ductal structures
- High levels during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistances, increased growth factors levels (e.g. IGF-1) + modify lipid metabolism in preparation for breastfeeding
- During lactation, is the main factor in maintaining tight junctions of ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance
Describe the role of human chorionic sommatomammotropin in lactation
- From month two, placenta releases large amounts of HCS
- Closely associated with prolactin
- Instrumental in breast, nipple and areola growth before birth
Describe the role of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), lutenising hormone (LH) and human chorionic gonadotrophin in lactation
- Control oestrogen and progesterone secretion
- Also control prolactin and growth hormone
Describe the role of growth hormone in lactation
- Structurally similar to prolactin
- Independently contributes to galactopoiesis
Describe the role of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucorticoids e.g. cortisol in lactation
- Important lactation inducing functions
- Glucocorticoids play complex regulatory role in maintenance of tight junctions
Describe the role of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in lactation
- Very important galactopoietic hormones
- Levels naturally increase during pregnancy
Describe the role of oxytocin in lactation
- After birth, contracts the smooth muscle layer of band-like cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze newly produced milk into the duct system
- Necessary for the milk ejection or let-down reflex, in response to suckling
Describe secretory differentiation in lactation
- Occurs during latter part of pregnancy
- Breasts make colostrum
- High levels of progesterone inhibit most milk production
Describe secretory activation in lactation
- At birth, prolactin levels remain high
- Delivery of placenta causes sudden drop in progesterone, oestrogen and HCS levels
- Abrupt withdrawal of progesterone stimulates copious milk production of secretory activation:
- Breast is stimulated
- Prolactin levels in blood rise, peak in 45 minutes, return to pre-breastfeeding state 3 hours later
- Release of prolactin triggers cells in alveoli to make milk (other hormones such as insulin, thyroxine and cortisol are involved)
When does secretory activation occur?
30-40 hours after birth, although mothers may not feel until 50-73 hours after birth
Colostrum
- First milk a baby receives
- Contains higher amounts of white blood cells and antibodies than mature milk
- Especially high in immunoglobulin A (IgA) - coats lining of baby’s immature intestines, helps to prevent pathogens from invading baby’s system
- Secretory IgA also helps to prevent allergies
- Over first 2 weeks after birth, colostrum production slowly gives way to mature breast milk (fore-milk then hind-milk)
Compare colostrum to mature breast milk
Colostrum:
- Thick, creamy, yellow
- Increased concentrations of calcium, potassium, fat-soluble vitamins, minerals and antibodies/WBC
- High concentration of proteins but lower amounts of carbohydrates and lipids compared to breast milk
- Lower in calories, so baby normally experiences small drop in weight in few days after birth (which quickly increases back to normal)
List the anti-infective agents found in colostrum
Macrophages, lymphocytes, immunoglobulins (esp. IgA), lactoferrin, lysozyme, complement, interferron, oligosaccharides, growth factors and enzymes
Describe the autocrine control of galactopoiesis
- Hormonal endocrine control system drives milk production during pregnancy + first few days after birth
- When milk supply is more firmly established autocrine (or local) control system begins
- Milk supply strongly influenced by how often baby feeds and how well it is able to transfer milk from the breast
- More milk removed from breast = more milk produced by the breast
- Draining of breasts more fully also increases rate of milk production
What causes low milk supply?
- Not feeding or pumping enough
- Inability of the infant to transfer milk effectively - jaw or mouth structure deficits or poor latching technique
- Rare maternal endocrine disorders
- Hypoplastic breast tissue
- Inadequate calorie intake or malnutrition of the mother
Describe the mechanism of the milk ejection reflex
- Mechanism by which milk is transported from breast alveoli to nipple
- Suckling by baby stimulates paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus, signals the posterior pituitary to produce oxytocin
- Oxytocin stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells surrounding alveoli, which already hold milk
- Increased pressure causes milk to flow through duct system and be released through the nipple
Give examples of stimuli which can trigger the milk let-down reflex
- Baby suckling
- Hearing baby crying
- Thinking about breastfeeding
What causes a poor milk ejection reflex?
- Sore/cracked nipples
- Separation from the baby
- History of breast surgery
- Tissue damage from prior breast trauma
What can help improve a woman’s milk ejection reflex?
- Feeding in familiar and comfortable place
- Massage of breast or back
- Warming breast with cloth/shower
Which receptors are involved in the milk ejection reflex?
Slowly adapting and rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors densely packed around the areolar region
Describe the components of mature breast milk
- Lactose
- Main sugar (carbohydrate) in breast milk
- Composed of glucose + glalactose
- Amount of lactose in milk increases over duration of breastfeeding to meet baby’s need - Protein
- Casein (2.6g/L) present - much lower than cow’s milk
- Whey protein (6.4g/L) - Lipids
- 38g/L
- Triglycerols
- Phospholipids
- Fatty acids (including essential fatty acids)
What is the energy content of mature breast milk
750kcal/L
Compare the nutritional components of breast milk to formula milk
Macromolecules v similar - created using breast milk as gold standard
List the compositional differences between breast milk and formula milk
- Breast milk provides complex range of anti-infective components e.g. antibodies to help protect baby from infection
- Breast milk is always right temperature and is microbiologically clean - bottle feeding requires careful sterilising and temperature control before feeding baby
- Breast milk is more easily digested - baby often less constipated/gassy
- Breast milk rich in digestive enzymes e.g. lipase/amylase - promote intestinal health
- Breast milk contains probiotics which contribute to baby’s gut microflora
List the maternal benefits of breastfeeding
- Reduces maternal risk of breast cancer, diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis and ovarian cancer
- Helps with spacing of pregnancies due to lactational amenorrhoea
- Helps with weight loss after birth
Why may mothers have negative feelings towards breastfeeding?
- Feelings of insecurity/guilt about not being able to produce enough milk
- Concern over quality of their diet and effect on baby
- Lack of education/support or little exposure to breastfeeding prior to pregnancy
Breastfeeding etc. (Scotland) Act 2005
It is an offence to:
- Prevent or stop a person in charge of a child from feeding milk (breast milk, cow’s milk or infant formula) to that child in a public place or on licensed premises - including breastfeeding and feeding from a bottle
Also stated to:
- Support and encourage breastfeeding of children by their mothers
- Spread information promoting and encouraging breastfeeding
In what ways can breastfeeding be promoted in communities?
- Training community healthcare providers
- Peer counsellors - healthcare workers or women who have given birth to a child and breastfed successfully
- Women’s groups - support groups
- Integration of breastfeeding with primary and preventative health services
- Integration of breastfeeding and early childhood development strategies
List the reasons why breastfeeding may not be possible
- Low breast milk supply
- Dependency on drugs
- Medication
- Infection
- If baby can’t breastfeed
Explain why drug dependency may not allow for breastfeeding
- Drugs may pass to baby through breast milk
- Can cause irritability, sleepiness, poor feeding, growth problems, neurological damage, death
- Puts mother and baby at risk of contraction infectious diseases such as HIV
Explain why medication may not allow for breastfeeding
- Some prescription drugs can cause harm to baby
- E.g. chemotherapy drugs, antiretroviral drugs, radioactive iodine, some sedatives, seizure medications, medications that cause drowsiness/suppress breathing
- Some cause reduction in milk supply
- E.g. cold and sinus medications contains pseudoephedrine, some types of hormonal contraception
Explain why infection may not allow for breastfeeding
- Some can pass to baby through breast milk
- E.g. HIV, human T-cell lymphotropic virus
Why would a baby not be able to breastfeed?
- Classic galactosemia - inability to break down galactose
- Phenylketonuria - may be able to combine breastfeeding with formula
- Deformity of mouth/jaw - can drink expressed breast milk