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Y1B4 (RESP & RAU) ๐Ÿ“™ > Pharmacology ๐Ÿ’Š > Flashcards

Pharmacology ๐Ÿ’Š Flashcards

1
Q

What are the goals of therapy of bronchial asthma?

A
  • Drug therapy for long-term control of asthma is designed to reverse and prevent airway inflammation.
  • The goals of asthma therapy are to decrease the intensity and frequency of asthma symptoms, prevent future exacerbations, and minimize limitations in activity related to asthma symptoms
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2
Q

What are the drugs used in treatment of bronchial asthma?

A

1- ฮฒ2-Adrenergic agonists

2- Corticosteroids

3- Alternative Drugs Used to Treat Asthma
-Leukotriene modifiers
-Cholinergic antagonists ((ipratropium/ tiotropium)
-Theophylline (bronchodilator/ anti-inflammatory)
-Ketotifen
-Monoclonal antibodies

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3
Q

What is the classification of beta 2 adrenergic agonist?

A

1) Short-acting ฮฒ2 agonists (SABAs): Salbutamol, terbutaline albuterol

2) long-acting ฮฒ2 agonists (LABAs): salmeterol, formaterol

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4
Q

What is the mechanism of action of beta 2 adrenergic agonists? โ€œRelaxation of bronchial smooth musclesโ€

A

1) ฮฒ2-Agonists stimulate ฮฒ2-receptors (Gs) stimulate adenyl cyclase and increase formation of cAMP in the airway tissues & relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles.

2) They inhibit release of inflammatory mediator or bronchoconstricting substances from mast cells.

3) Improve Ciliary Function

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5
Q

Compare between short acting and long-acting beta 2 adrenergic agonists Acc to:-

Duration of action
Designation
Indication

A

Duration of action: (4-6 h) - (โ‰ฅ 12 h)

Designation: Quick reliever drugs - Long-term Controller

Indication:
โœ“ Monotherapy for mild, intermittent asthma and Exercise-induced bronchospasm.
โœ“ Part of poly therapy for persistent asthma

โœ“ used only in combination with an asthma controller medication
โœ“ Some LABAs are available as a combination product with an ICS โ€œfor increased complianceโ€

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6
Q

What is the route of administration of beta 2 adrenergic agonist?

A

โ€ข In general, ฮฒ-adrenoceptor agonists are best delivered by inhalation.

โ€ข This results in the greatest local effect on airway smooth muscle with the least systemic
toxicity

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7
Q

What are the adverse effects of beta 2 adrenergic agonists?

A

โ€ข Tachycardia โ€œdue to lost selectivityโ€
โ€ข Tremors โ€œB2 found on SK MSโ€
โ€ข Tolerance
โ€ข Hypokalemia โ€œinc K+ entryโ€

โ€œ3T + Hโ€

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8
Q

What is the importance of corticosteroids?

A

Steroids are corner stone for treatment of BA

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9
Q

What is the classification of corticosteroids?

A

1) Systemic: hydrocortisone and prednisolone

2) Inhalation: beclomethasone, fluticasone, Ciclesonide,โ€ฆโ€ฆ. etc.

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10
Q

What is the mechanism of action of corticosteroids?

โ€œCorticosteroids and beta two agonists act in a complementary way as corticosteroids have anti-inflammatory effect and up-regulate the B2 receptors (which was down-regulated by the B2 agonists) while beta two agonists have direct relaxation effect and a little anti-inflammatory effectโ€

A
  1. Inhibition of PLA2 & the production of inflammatory mediators (PGs, LTs) โ€œwhich are bronchoconstricting agentsโ€
  2. decreasing the inflammatory cascade (eosinophils, macrophages, and T lymphocytes)
  3. reversing mucosal edema
  4. decreasing the permeability of capillaries
  5. They also up-regulate ฮฒ2- receptor โ€œprevent toleranceโ€
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11
Q

What is the route of administration of corticosteroids?

A

a) Inhalation
To be effective in controlling inflammation, they must be used regularly to decrease responsiveness of air way to triggers.

b) Oral/systemic
Patients with a severe exacerbation of asthma (status asthmaticus) may require intravenous or oral steroids to reduce airway inflammation.

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12
Q

What are the clinical uses of corticosteroids in bronchial asthma?

A

1) ICS is 1st choice in newly diagnosed BA

2) Urgent treatment of acute severe asthma not improved with BD (IV, inhalation).

3) Chronic asthma (aerosol, oral).

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13
Q

What are the adverse effects of corticosteroids in treatment of bronchial asthma?

A

Inhaled steroids

โ€ข Oropharyngeal candidiasis
- Patients should be instructed to rinse the mouth in a โ€œswish-and-spitโ€ method with water following use of the inhaler to decrease the chance of these adverse events.

  • If Candida infection occurs, it must be treated by antifungal e.g, nystatin mouthwash.

โ€ข Hoarseness of voice

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14
Q

What are in the alternative drugs used in treatment of asthma?

A
  1. Leukotriene modifiers
  2. Cholinergic antagonists ((ipratropium/ tiotropium)
  3. Theophylline
  4. Ketotifen
  5. Monoclonal antibodies
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15
Q

When are alternative drugs to treat asthma used?

A
  • These drugs are useful for treatment of asthma in patients who are poorly controlled by conventional therapy or experience adverse effects secondary to corticosteroid treatment.
  • These drugs should be used in conjunction with ICS therapy for most patients. โ€œIn 1st caseโ€
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16
Q

what is the metabolism cascade of arachidonic acid and what are the functions of the products?

A
  • Leukotrienes (LT) B4 and the cysteinyl leukotrienes are products of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway of arachidonic acid metabolism and part of the inflammatory cascade.
  • LTB4 is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils
  • whereas the cysteinyl leukotrienes constrict bronchiolar smooth muscle, increase endothelial permeability, and promote mucus secretion.
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17
Q

What are the types of leukotriene modifiers?

A

a) Zileuton โ€œblock the cascade from the middle while corticosteroids block the cascade from the originโ€ โ€œbut has side effectsโ€

b) Zafirlukast and montelukast

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18
Q

What is the mechanism of action of the zileuton?

A

Selective inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase enzyme; preventing the formation of LTB4 and the cysteinyl leukotrienes.

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19
Q

What is the mechanism of action of the zafirlukast and montelukast?

A

Selective antagonists of the cysteinyl leukotriene-1 receptor, and they block the effects of cysteinyl leukotrienes.

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20
Q

What are the uses of leukotriene modifiers?

A

1) Prevention of asthma symptoms.
2) Should not be used in acute BA
3) Leukotriene receptor antagonists used for prevention of aspirin & exercise-induced asthma.

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21
Q

What is the mechanism of action of cholinergic antagonists what are examples for cholinergic antagonists?

A

(ipratropium/ tiotropium) โ€œThe first is short acting and the second is long-actingโ€

Mechanism of action: block M3 R inhibit contraction of airway smooth muscle and mucus secretion

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22
Q

What are the uses of cholinergic antagonists in the treatment of bronchial asthma?

A

โ€ข Patients who are unable to tolerate a SABA โ€œWants to avoid Tremors for exampleโ€

โ€ข Bronchospasm precipitated by B antagonist

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23
Q

preparation of theophylline

A

aminophylline & theophylline

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24
Q

What is the mechanism of action of theophylline?

A
  • Inhibit PDE3 increase in cAMP level โ€œlike beta agonistsโ€ lead to
    a. relaxation of airway muscles
    b. inhibition of release of the bronchoconstrictor substances from the mast cells
    c. reduction in the immune and inflammatory activity of specific cells..
  • Block adenosine R (Adenosine causes contraction of airway smooth muscle, enhances histamine release from cells present in the lung). These effects are antagonized by thoephylline.
  • Enhancement of histone deacetylation anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating effect
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25
Q

What is theophylline replaced by nowadays and why is it replaced by these drugs?

A
  • beta agonists and corticosteroids due to its narrow therapeutic window, adverse effect profile, and potential for drug interactions.
  • Overdose may cause seizures or potentially fatal arrhythmias.
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26
Q

What metabolizes theophylline and how should it be monitored if given chronically?

A
  • Theophylline is metabolized in the liver and is a CYP1A2 and 3A4 substrate. It is subject to numerous drug interactions.
  • Serum concentration monitoring should be performed when theophylline is used chronically.
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27
Q

What type of drug is ketotifen and what are its uses?

A
  • It is a 2nd generation antihistamine and a mast cell stabilizer.
  • Used orally as a prophylactic treatment in bronchial asthma and other seasonal allergies.
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28
Q

What are the monoclonal antibodies used in treating bronchial asthma?

A

โ€ข Omalizumab is a monoclonal antibody that selectively binds to human immunoglobulin E(IgE).

โ€ข Mepolizumab is interleukin-5 (IL-5) antagonists.

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29
Q

What are the uses of monoclonal antibodies in treatment of bronchial asthma?

A

1) Treatment of severe persistent asthma in patients who are poorly controlled with conventional therapy.

2) Their use is limited by the high cost, route of administration (SC) , and adverse effect profile

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30
Q

What are the guidelines followed in treatment of acute severe asthma?

A

โ€ O2 - SABA - Anticholenergic - SCS - Fluids - Magnesium sulfate and antibiotics in specific casesโ€

1) Hospitalization, Administration of oxygen

2) Frequent or continuous administration of aerosolized SABA like salbutamol by nebulizer

3) Add ipratropium to the inhaler

4) Systemic corticosteroid like methyl-prednisolone or hydrocortisone IV

5) IV magnesium sulfate infusion in case of failure to inhaled bronchodilators

6) Iv fluid to avoid dehydration & correction of electrolyte disturbances

7) Antibiotics in the presence of infection

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31
Q

What are the drugs used in treatment of cough?

A

โˆ’ Antitussives: are used to stop dry cough.

โˆ’ Mucolytics and expectorants: are used in productive cough to liquefy bronchial secretions and facilitate their removal.

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32
Q

What are types of antitussives?

A

Peripheral & Central

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33
Q

What is the mechanism of action of peripheral antitussives?

A
  • Decrease the input of stimuli from the cough receptor in the respiratory passages.
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34
Q

What are Examples of peripheral antitussives?

A

1) Steam inhalation with menthol or tincture benzoin
2) Benzonatate
3) Demulcents e.g. liquorices, lozenges, honey

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35
Q

What are examples of central antitussives?

A

1)Opioid non selective e.g. codeine, hydrocodeine, etc

2) Opioid selective antitussives e.g. dextromethorphan

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36
Q

What is the mechanism of action of central antitussives?

A
  • Suppress the medullary cough center
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37
Q

What are the uses of antitusseves?

A

Uses: to relieve a nonproductive cough caused by
1) Pharyngitis
2) Viral infections
3) Allergy
4) Smoking
5) Acid reflux
6) Drugs: ACEI

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38
Q

What are mucolytics?

A
  • they are agents that reduce viscosity of respiratory secretions without increasing their amount.
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39
Q

What are examples of mucolytics?

A

โ–  Bromhexine
โ–  Ambroxol
โ–  N-Acetylcysteine and carbocyseine
โ–  IODIDES [Sodium & Potassium Iodide]

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40
Q

What are expectorants?

A
  • drugs that increase water content and amount of the respiratory secretions. This action facilitates the removal of respiratory secretions.
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41
Q

What is an example of expectorants?

A

Guaifenesin

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42
Q

What is a very important measure to encourage expectoration?

A
  • Adequate hydration โ€œwith expectorantsโ€ is the single most important measure to encourage expectoration. Using an expectorant in addition may produce the desired result.
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43
Q

What is the mechanism of action of expectorants?

A
  • Stimulate the bronchial glands to secrete low-viscosity mucous
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44
Q

What are the therapeutic uses of mucolytics and expectorants?

A

โ–ช Chronic respiratory diseases: chronic bronchitis, emphysema, bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis.

โ–ช Post-operative and post-traumatic pulmonary complications.

โ–ช Chronic sinusitis and chronic otitis media.

โ–ช Intravenous N-acetylcysteine is used as an antidote for acetaminophen (paracetamol) toxicity (quite apart from its mucolytic activity).

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45
Q

What is the difference between mucolytics and expectorants?

A

Expectorants increase airway water to help with mucus clearing. Mucoregulators increase the movement of mucus via cough.

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46
Q

What is the definition of antimicrobial drugs?

A

Antimicrobial drugs โ†’ chemical substances (natural or synthetic) that suppress the growth of, or kill, microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, helminths, protozoa and viruses)

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47
Q

What are antimicrobial drugs classified according to?

A
  • According to their chemical structure โ€œinto familiesโ€
  • According to their mechanism of action โ€œimpโ€
  • According to the effect done by their safe plasma concentration
  • According to the spectrum of activity โ€œthe most impโ€
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48
Q

What are anti-microbial drugs classified into according to their mechanism of action?

A
  1. Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis โ†’ ฮฒ-lactams
  2. Increased permeability of the bacterial cell phospholipid membrane
  3. Impaired bacterial ribosome function โ†’ reversible inhibition of protein synthesis โ†’ macrolides
  4. Selective block of bacterial metabolic pathways
  5. Interference with bacterial DNA or RNA synthesis

โ€œDrugs which attack structures that are found exclusively in the bacterial cell are the best due to their low side effectsโ€

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49
Q

What are antimicrobial drugs classified into according to the effect done by their safe plasma concentration?

A

Bacteriostatic

Bactericidal

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50
Q

What are bacterostatic antibiotics?

A

Bacteriostatic antibiotics: remember of โ€œMs. Coltโ€™

  • Macrolides
  • Sulfonamides
  • Chloramphenicol
  • oxazolidinones
  • Lincosamides (clindamvcin)
  • Tetracyclines
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51
Q

What are bactericidal antibiotics?

A

Bactericidal antibiotics: remember of โ€œBANG Q R.I.P.โ€

  • Beta-lactams
  • Aminoglicosides
  • Nitroimidazoles (metronidazole)
  • Glycopeptides (vancomycin)
  • Quinolones
  • Rifampicin
  • Polymyxins (colistin)
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52
Q

What are bacteriostatic antibiotics?

A
  • inhibit bacterial growth but do not kill the bacteria at plasma concentrations that are safe for humans โ†’ natural immune mechanisms are required to eliminate the bacteria.
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53
Q

What are bacteriostatic drugs less affective against?

A
  • less effective in immunocompromised individuals or when the bacteria are dormant and not dividing.
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54
Q

What are bactericidal antibiotics?

A
  • kill bacteria at plasma concentrations safe for humans

โ€œHowever, they are not better in immunocompetent individualsโ€

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55
Q

What is the definition of antimicrobial resistance?

โ€œHappens due to administration of incomplete courses and takes place mainly due to the plasmidโ€

A
  • the ability of bacteria to grow in the presence of a drug that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth.
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56
Q

What are the types of antimicrobial resistance?

A

โ— Intrinsic (innate)

โ— Acquired resistance โ†’ due to modification of its genetic structure (acquired resistance).

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57
Q

What is the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance?

โ€ Mask - Attack - Defend - Quit โ€ฆ then Expellโ€

A
  1. Structural change in the target molecule for the antibacterial drug
  2. Production of enzymes that inactivate the antibacterial drug โ€œrareโ€
  3. Decreased penetration of the antibacterial drug into the bacterial cell โ€œBy changing the transporters that allow entryโ€
  4. Acquisition of efflux pumps that remove the antibacterial drug from the bacterial cell
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58
Q

What are the antimicrobial drugs that affect the cell wall?

A

โ— ฮฒ-Lactam Antibacterials
โ— Vancomycin

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59
Q

What are the types of beta-lactam antibacterials?

A

โ— Penicillins โ€œgram +โ€
โ— Cephalosporins
โ— Monobactams
โ— Carbapenems โ€œthe most resistant to beta lactamasesโ€

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60
Q

What is a characteristic thing in the structure of beta lactam antibacterials?

A
  • All drugs in this class โ†’ have a ฮฒ-lactam ring โ†’ must be intact for them to be active
  • ฮฒ-Lactam โ†’ susceptible to inactivation by bacterial ฮฒ-lactamases โ†’ split the ฮฒ-lactam ring
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61
Q

What is the difference between Cephalosporins, Monobactams, Carbapenems and penicillins?

A
  • They have structural modifications โ†’ show some resistance to ฮฒ-lactamases.
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62
Q

What is the mechanism of action of beta-lactams?

A
  1. ฮฒ-lactam antibiotics โ†’ bind to penicillin-binding proteins PBPs (transpeptidases) in bacteria, which is required for the last step of the bacterial cell wall synthesis (cross-linking of the peptidoglycan layer) โ†’ inhibit transpeptidation reaction โ†’ inhibits cell wall synthesis when bacterium divides โ†’ exposure of the osmotically unstable cell membrane โ†’ bacterial cell swelling, rupture and death of the bacterium.
  2. In Gram positive bacteria โ†’ binding of ฮฒ-lactam antibiotics to other PBPs โ†’ โ†‘ activity of autolytic enzymes โ†’ promotes lysis of the bacterial cell wall.
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63
Q

what are the forms of bacterial resistance to beta-lactams?

A
  1. Production of ฮฒ-lactamases โ†’ hydrolyse the ฮฒ-lactam ring โ€œattackโ€
  • There are hundreds of ฮฒ-lactamases โ†’ produced by various organisms
    โ—‹ Methicillin โ€œtype of penicillinโ€ sensitive Staph. aureus (MSSA) โ†’ release extracellular ฮฒ-lactamases. โ€œAffect some penecilinsโ€

โ—‹ Gram-negative bacteria โ†’ secrete ฮฒ-lactamases between the inner and outer cell membranes in the periplasmic space.

โ—‹ Enterobacteria โ†’ release extended-spectrum ฮฒ- lactamases (ESBLs) โ†’ hydrolyse 3rd-generation cephalosporins, monobactams & carbapenemase.

โ€œVery strongโ€

  1. Mutation in PBP โ†’ PBP2A โ†’ do not bind ฮฒ-lactam antibacterials โ†’ gonococci and in meticillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). โ€œmaskโ€
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64
Q

What is the arrangement of penicillins according to the spectrum of activity?

A

Anti-staph penicillins (Narrow spectrum)

Natural penicillins (Intermediate spectrum)

Animo-penicillins (Broad spectrum)

Antipseudomonal penicillins (Extended spectrum)

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65
Q

What are examples of anti-Staph penicillins?

A

Dicloxacillin
Nafcillin
Flucloxacillin
Methicillin

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66
Q

What are examples of natural penicillins?

A

Penicillin G
Penicillin V

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67
Q

What are examples of aminopenicillins?

A

Amoxicillin +/- clavulanate โ€œbeta - lactamase inhibitorsโ€
โ€œโ€ุดุฑุงุจโ€

Ampicillin +/- sulbactam
โ€œโ€ุญู‚ู†โ€

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68
Q

What are the examples of antipseudomonal penicillins?

A

Piperacillin + tazobactam

Ticarcillin + clavulanate

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69
Q

What are cephalosporins classified into?

A

Classified into 5 generations

โ€œโ€ The fifth generation is very valuableโ€

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70
Q

What is the effect of cephalosporins? โ€œGram -โ€œ

A

โ— Successive generations โ†’ have โ†‘ activity against Gram-negative bacilli.

โ— Moving from the 1st to 3rd generations โ†’ โ†“ Gram-positive activity & moving from 3rd to 5th generations โ†’ progressively โ†‘ Gram-positive activity again

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71
Q

What is the spectrum of activity of monobactams (aztreonam)? โ€œSpecific especially for pseudomonasโ€

A
  • Spectrum of activity โ†’ limited to Gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas, Neisseria meningitidis , N. gonorrhoeae and H. influenzae.
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72
Q

What is the special thing about monobactams?

A
  • No cross-allergenicity with the penicillins โ†’ given to people with penicillin allergy
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73
Q

What are examples of carpapenems?

A

Ertapenem, imipenem, meropenem

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74
Q

What is the spectrum of activity of carpapenems? โ€œValuable drugs and they are not oralโ€

A
  • Extremely broad spectrum of activity โ†’ Gram-positive cocci + Gram-negative bacilli + P. aeruginosa + many anaerobic bacteria.
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75
Q

Mention a note about each of:-

Etrapenem
Imipenem
Meropenem

A

โ— Only ertapenem is inactive against Pseudomonas.

โ— Imipenem is rapidly hydrolysed by dehydropeptidase in the kidneys โ†’ is always given in combination with the dihydropeptidase inhibitor cilastatin โ†’ Imipenem-Cilastin.

โ— Meropenem is available in combination with ฮฒ-lactamase inhibitor vaborbactam

โ€œbeta-lactase inhibitorโ€

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76
Q

What are the antimicrobial drugs that are eliminated by the biliary way?

A

Nafcillin
Ampicillin
Ampicillin

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77
Q

What are the side effects of penicillins? โ€œPrescribed to pregnant womenโ€

A

โ— GIT

  • Nausea, vomiting โ†’ most common with oral preparations
  • Diarrhoea (Clostridium difficile -related colitis) โ€œHarmful bacteria normally killed by floraโ€ โ†’ a result of disturbance of normal colonic flora โ†’ especially with broad-spectrum penicillins.

โ— Allergic reactions โ†’ common (5% of exposed individuals). โ€œAll types of hypersensitivity reactionsโ€
โ€œโ€ุดุฎุต ูŠู‚ุน ุจุนุฏ ุญู‚ู† ู…ุถุงุฏ ุญูŠูˆูŠโ€

Manifestations:-

  1. Urticaria, wheeze and anaphylaxis (IgE-mediated reactions);
  2. Vasculitis and serum sickness (immune complex-mediated reactions).
  3. Nonspecific maculopapular rash, and the rare serious Stevensโ€“ Johnson syndrome โ€œPeeling of skinโ€(T-cell-mediated allergy)
  • Cross-allergenicity โ†’ with cephalosporins is < 2%;
    with carbapenems is < 1%, no cross-allergenicity with monobactams.

โ— Aminopenicillins โ†’ frequently produce a nonallergic maculopapular rash in people with glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis with Epstein-Barr virus) โ€œindicates false treatmentโ€

  • Not associated with other types of penicillin..

โ— Encephalopathy โ€œrareโ€โ†’ excessively high concentrations in the CSF โ†’ occurs in severe renal failure or after mistaken intrathecal injection

โ— Cholestatic jaundice โ†’ flucloxacillin โ€œanti-staphโ€or clavulanic acid

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78
Q

What are the side effects of cephalosporins?

A
  • GIT โ†’ same as penicillins โ†’ more common with cephalosporins โ€œmore broad spectrumโ€
  • Allergic reactions โ†’ A history of IgE-mediated reaction to penicillin (e.g. anaphylaxis, wheeze, urticaria) โ†’ contraindicates use of cephalosporins.

โ€œUsed in patients with penicillin Hypersensitivity but with cautionโ€

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79
Q

What are the side effects of carpapenems?

A

โ— Allergic reactions

โ— Neurotoxicity with seizures โ€œโ€ุชุดู†ุฌุงุชโ€ โ†’ more common with imipenem

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80
Q

What is the mechanism of action of vancomycin?

โ€œStrong acid, low pKa, bad oral Absorbtionโ€

A
  • it binds to the terminal D-Ala-D-Ala portion of pentapeptide side chain โ†’ block transpeptidation and inhibit cross-linking of peptidoglycan โ†’ interfere with cell wall synthesis
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81
Q

What is the spectrum of action of vancomycin?

โ€œSpecific for serious gram-positive infectionsโ€

A
  • narrow spectrum โ†’ only against Gram-positive bacteria, particularly MRSA. โ€œLike penicillinsโ€
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82
Q

What are the uses of vancomycin?

A

usually reserved for

โ— Ttt of serious Gram-positive bacterial infection

โ— Ttt of bacterial endocarditis not responding to other treatments. โ€œNot commonโ€

โ— Ttt of C. difficile colitis โ†’ given orally โ€œacts locallyโ€

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83
Q

What are the side effects of vancomycin? โ€œFaulty infusion and toxicityโ€

โ€œLike aminoglycosidesโ€

โ€œNot absorbed orally โ†’ given by i.v infusionโ€

A

โ— Nephrotoxicity โ†’ โ†‘ if used in combination with other nephrotoxic drugs (aminoglycosides).

โ— Ototoxicity โ†’ uncommon โ†’ usually starts with tinnitus. โ€œSound of buzzingโ€

โ— Thrombophlebitis at the site of i.v infusion. โ€œNeeds good techniqueโ€

โ— Rapid i.v injection or infusion of vancomycin โ†’ histamine release โ†’ โ†“ BP, wheezing, urticaria, upper body flushing โ†’ the โ€˜red manโ€™ syndrome.

โ€œHowever, is this drug is used due to increasing infections with MRSAโ€

Therapeutic monitoring of the trough plasma concentrations of vancomycin and dose adjustment โ†’ โ†“ risk of toxic effects.

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84
Q

What are the drugs that affect bacterial protein synthesis?

A

โ— Macrolides
โ— Tetracyclines
โ— Aminoglycosides

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85
Q

What is the mechanism of action of Macrolides?

A
  • bind reversibly to the 50S subunit of the bacterial ribosome โ†’ inhibit peptidyl transferase & block translocation of the aminoacyl-tRNA from the A site to the P site โ†’ preventing elongation of the polypeptide chain โ†’ interfere with bacterial protein synthesis
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86
Q

What is the spectrum of activity of macrolides?
โ€œKinda Like aminopenicillinsโ€

A

โ— Erythromycin โ†’ has a similar spectrum of activity to amoxicillin + Legionella + atypicals โ€œunlike penicillinsโ€. (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Campylobacter and Bordetella pertussis).
Used to treat infections in people who are allergic to ฮฒ-lactams.

โ— Clarithromycin & Azithromycin โ€œmost commonly usedโ€ > erythromycin โ†’ โ†‘ activity against H. influenzae & mycobacterium avium

โ— Clarithromycin โ†’ part of the multidrug treatment of H. pylori โ€œwhich causes peptic ulcerโ€

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87
Q

What are the side effects of macrolides?

โ€œNear to penicillins since they have the same spectrum of activityโ€

โ€œLess allergy but more bad effectsโ€

A

โ— GIT โ†’ common โ†’ Epigastric discomfort, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea โ†’ erythromycin.

โ— Rashes.

โ— Cholestatic jaundice โ†’ with erythromycin estolate โ†’ if treatment is continued > 2 week.

โ— Prolongation of the Q โ€“T interval โ†’ predispose to ventricular arrhythmias.

โ— Drug interactions โ†’ erythromycin and clarithromycin inhibit P450 drug- metabolising enzymes (CYP3A4, CYP2D6) โ†’ โ†‘ plasma concentration of other drugs metabolised by these enzymes, including carbamazepine, cyclosporine and simvastatin.

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88
Q

What are the contraindications of macrolides?

A

a. Patients with hepatic dysfunction โ†’ these drugs accumulate in the liver livery esp. Erythromycin & azithromycin

b. Patients with proarrhythmic conditions or concomitant use of proarrhythmic agents.

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89
Q

What is the selection of a suitable antibiotic based on?

A

Host factors

Drug factors

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90
Q

What are the host factors that affect antibiotic selection?

A
  • pregnancy, drug allergies, age and immune status, and the presence of renal impairment, hepatic insufficiency, abscesses, or indwelling catheters and similar devices.
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91
Q

What are the drug factors that affect antibiotic selection?

A

โ—‹ Antimicrobial spectrum of activity โ†’
โ–  Based on laboratory tests (microbial culture and sensitivity)

โ–  Based on knowledge of the most common organisms causing various types of infections and the preferred drugs for these organisms (empiric selection) โ†’ may be used to treat serious infections until lab test results are available or to treat minor upper respiratory and urinary tract infections

โ—‹ Pharmacokinetic Properties โ†’ oral bioavailability, peak serum concentration, distribution to particular sites of infection, routes of elimination, and t1/2.

โ—‹ Adverse Effect Profile

92
Q

What is PCT responsible for?

A

Reabsorption of:

  1. 60-70% of the filtered Na
  2. > 90% of HCO3
93
Q

What is key for NaHCO3 reabsorption and distal tubular urine acidification?

A

Carbonic anhydrase

94
Q

What is the loop of henle responsible for?

A

20โ€“30% of the filter the NaCl is actively reabsorbed in the thick ascending limb of henleโ€™s loop by Na/K/2CL co transporter

95
Q

What is DCT responsible for?

A

5-10% of filtered Na is reabsorbed in the early portion of DCT by Na/CL co-transporter

96
Q

What is CD responsible for?

A
  • 1-2% of Na is reabsorbed in Distal portion of DCT, CT, and CD
  • K and H are secreted in exchange with Na (Under the effect of aldosterone)
97
Q

What are the diuretics classified according to?

A
  1. Efficacy
  2. Potassium level
  3. Site of action
98
Q

What are diuretics classified into according to efficacy?

A

High: Loop diuretics

Moderate : Thiazides

Low : CAEIs, K Sparring

99
Q

What are diuretics classified into according to their effect on potassium level in blood?

A

โ€ข K_ losing: Loop - Thiazides - CAEI

โ€ข K _ sparring: spironolactone- Amiloride -Triameterine

100
Q

What are examples of loop diuretics?

A
  • sulphonamides derivatives: Furosemide, bumetanide โ€œbetter bioavailabilityโ€ (the most potent) and torsemide. (Cross allergy)
    โ€œThatโ€™s why they cause allergyโ€
  • Non-sulphonamides derivatives: Ethacrynic acid
    (No allergy)
101
Q

What are the kinetics of loop diuretics?

โ€œRapid onsetโ€

A

โˆ’ Can be taken orally 30-60 min (for chronic use) or I.V 5min (for emergency use)

โˆ’ Rapid onset and short duration (2h I.V) & (6-8 orally) ,so can be used in emergencies

โˆ’ Secreted by organic acid secretory system (acidic carrier) of Kidney (competition with uric acid)

102
Q

What is the MOA of loop diuretics?

A

โ—ผ Loop diuretics inhibit Na+ /K+ /2CI- co-transporter in thick ascending limb of loop of Henle , so increase Na+/H2O excretion .. 25%

โ—ผ Increase PGE2 and PGI2 causing VD of all blood vessels โ€œlow BPโ€

โ—ผ Also:
โˆ’ inhibition Ca2+ and Mg2+ transport โ€”> Ca and Mg excretion โ€œhelps in treatment of hypercalcemiaโ€

103
Q

What are the uses of loop diuretics?

A
  1. Acute Pulmonary Edema
  2. Acute Renal Failure
  3. Hypertensive encephalopathy (Crisis ) โ€œemergencyโ€
  4. Refractory edoema (not respond to less powerful diuretic) in liver Cirrhosis, severe HF, severe RF .
  5. Metabolic ( Non diuretic uses )
104
Q

How do Diuretics treat pulmonary edema?

A
  • Because it increase PG and cause VD even before diuresis occur .
105
Q

How do diuretics treat renal failure?

A
  • As they maintain GFR
  • Even Only 20% residual nephrons can respond normally to the loop diuretic .
  • Blocking Na . K . 2Cl pump
106
Q

Are loop diuretics used in localized edema or generalized edema?

A
  • Loop diuretics are not used in localized edema as edema due to lymphatic obstruction or inflammation.
107
Q

What are the metabolic uses of loop diuretics?

A

A. Treatment of hypercalcemia : decrease Ca reabsorbtion from ascending limb ( IV saline can be used . if not add Loop )

B. Treatment of hyperkalemia :

C. Treatment Of dilutional hyponatremia :- Because Loop diuretics Loss of H2o&raquo_space; Na in urine โ†’โ†‘ blood level of Na+ in Dilutional hyponatiemia .

D. Treatment of acidosis :
Because they โ†‘ Na exchange with H+ in DCT

โ€œLike compensatory mechanismโ€

108
Q

What are the side effects of loop diuretics?

A
  1. Hypovolemia (Powerful)
  2. Metabolic adverse effects
  3. Organ adverse effects โ€œinterfere with antibioticsโ€
  4. Refractoriness
109
Q

what is the order of administration of diuretics?

A
  • Resistance to loop diuretics can be reversed by addition of thiazides and resistance to latter can be decreased by adding potassium sparing diuretics
110
Q

What are the results of hypovolemia caused by loop diuretics?

A

Hypotensionโ€”->Collapse
Hameoconcentrationโ€”>Thrombosis

111
Q

What are the metabolic adverse effects caused by loop diuretics?

A
  • Hypokalemia (Hypomagnesmia and alkalosis)
  • Hypocalcemia
  • Hyperglycemia (hypokalemia โ†’ โ†“insulin release) so CI in DM .
  • Hyperuricemia (Loop diuretics interfere with uric acid secretion by acidic Carrier ) CI in Gout.
112
Q

What are the organ adverse effects caused by loop diuretics?

A
  • Ototoxicity with ethacrynic acid (aminoglycosides )
  • Interstitial nephritis ( with Cephalosporins )
  • Hypersenstivity ( Related to sulfa )
  • Gastric upset ( with ethacrynic acid )
  • Blood dyscariasis
  • Myalgia ( Bumetanide )
113
Q

What are examples of thiazide diuretics?

A

Chlorothiazide โžข : the prototype (rarely used now)

Hydrochlorothiazide โžข is now used more commonly , it is more potent than chlorothiazide & inhibits carbonic anhydrase enzyme (CAE).

114
Q

What are the kinetics of thiazide diuretics?

A

โˆ’ Effective orally (used for chronic cases only), onset 1-2h.

โˆ’ Secreted by organic acid secretory system (acidic carrier) of Kidney (competition with uric acid)

115
Q

What is the mechanism of action of thiazide diuretics?

A

โ—ผ they inhibit Na+ /Cl co-transporter (symporter) in early portion of distal tubule โ†’โ†‘ Na/H2O excretion โ€ฆ 5-10% (moderate, Low ceiling)

โ—ผIncrease PGE2 and PGI2 causing VD of all blood vessels (but Less than loop diuretics)

โ€œThe difference from diureticsโ€
โ—ผ Also:
โˆ’ cause Ca reabsorption โ€œtreat hypercalcuriaโ€
- Inhibit Carbonic anhydrase enzyme ( in supra-pharmacological dose).

116
Q

What are the uses of thiazide diuretics?

โ€œHeart - vessels - kidney - edema - metabolicโ€

A
  1. Congestive heart failure and other cause of mild edema (Not effective in edema of renal failure: because it do not act if GFR < 20 ml/min) and it has low ceiling effect (10% loss of Na).
  2. Hypertension ( with other drugs )
  3. Nephrogenic diabetes Insipidus (paradoxical effect).
  4. Treatment of idiopathic hypercalcuria and prevention of Ca stones (Nephrolithiasis)
117
Q

How do thiazide diuretics treat hypertension?

โ€œInitial then persistentโ€

A
  1. Initial hypotensive: decrease blood volume due to diuretic effect
  2. Persistant hypotensive effect Due to opining of K channel of BV โ†’ out flux โ†’ membrane hyperpolarizationโ†’โ†“ BP.
118
Q

How do thiazide diuretics treat nephrogenic diabetes insipidus?

โ€œD.I โ€”-> Increase in the amount of urineโ€

A

โ€ข Chronic use of thiazide โ†’ โ†“blood volume โ†’ โ†“GFR โ†’ โ†‘reabsorption from PCT โ†’ โ†“urine volume

โ€ข Increase sensitivity of receptor to ADH

119
Q

How do thiazide diuretics treat idiopathic hypercalciuria and prevent calcium stones?

โ€œCa is reabsorbedโ€

A
  • chronic use of thiazide โ†“ GFR โ†’โ†‘ Ca reabsorption from PCT โ†’โ†“ Ca in urine โ†’โ†“ Ca oxalate stones.
120
Q

What are the side effects of thiazide diuretics?

โ€œMAINLY METABOLICโ€

A
  1. Hyperglycemia (hypokalemia โžกopen Kchannels in B.cells DM โžกโฌ†k outflux โžกmemb hyperp โžกโฌ‡ insulin R)
  2. Hypercalcemia (โฌ‡blood volume โžกโฌ‡ GFR โžก increase Ca reab from Pct)
  3. Hyperuricemia (compete with uric acid on itโ€™s Carrier) CI in Gout
  4. Hyperlipidemia (increase LDL, decrease HDL ) โžก May cause a throsclerosis
  5. Hypokalemia
  6. Natremia
  7. Hepatic encephalopathy
  8. Sensitivity reactions ( related to sulfa)
  9. High lithium level (Lithium reabsorption with Na+ from PCT in reaponse To low GFR)
  10. Pancreatitis
  11. Impotence

โ€œ Loop diuretics โ€”โ€”> ototoxicity while Thiazides โ€”โ€”โ€”> lithium toxicityโ€

121
Q

How does hepatic encephalopathy occur as with use of thiazide diuretics?

A

it cause metabolic alkalosis which increase lipid soluble NH3 which affect brain.

122
Q

What is the most commonly used diuretic in essential hypertension?

A

Thiazide

123
Q

When is thiazide contraindicated and why?

A

โ€ข Lithium toxicity can occur if used with thiazides (due to increased absorption of lithium in the PT) .. not used in lithium nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

124
Q

What is the definition of K retaining diuretics?

A

Weak diuretic excrete 5 % of Na filterate

125
Q

What are the types of K retaining diuretics?

A
  • Aldosterone receptor antagonists ( Spironolactone and Eplerenone ) โ€œintracellularโ€
    โžข Synthetic steroid
  • Non-Aldosterone antagonists (Amiloride and triamterene )
    โžข Synthetic non steroid
    โžข Amiloride is more potent and longer acting than triamterene.
126
Q

What is the mechanism of action of K retaining diuretics?

A

Aldosterone receptor antagonists: antagonize aldosterone on its receptor โ†’ โ†“ formation of mediator protein โ†’ โ†“ opening of Na Channel โ†’ Loss of 5% of Na . (Delayed onset of action)

Non-Aldosterone antagonists: Block Na channels directly (Aldosterone independent ). (Rapid onset)

โžข Inhibit Na+/K+/H+ pump in late part of distal tubules, collecting tubules and collecting duct.

127
Q

What are the general uses of k retaining diuretics?

A
  • Used in combination with thiazide or loop diuretics to correct Hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia
128
Q

What are the uses of spirolactone?

โ€œEdema due to aldosterone & CHFโ€

A

1- Edema of hyper-aldosteronism:
primary Connโ€™s syndrome or secondary

2- in CHF:
spironolactone decreases mortality in patients with CHF by preventing cardiac remodeling, Spironolactone is safer in liver Cirrhosis than other diuretics

129
Q

What are the uses of amiloride?

A
  • in lithium nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
    (Lithium is absorbed through epithelial Na channels in the CD cells and at toxic doses can cause diabetes insipidus. Amiloride acts by blocking the entry of lithium through these channels.)
130
Q

What are the general side effects of K retaining diuretics?

A
  • Hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis: especially in DM or renal dysfunction.
131
Q

What are the side effects of spironolactone?

โ€œCompetes with aldosteroneโ€

A
  • Gynecomastia and impotence:- due to anti androgenic effect. ( Eplerenone has no antiandrogenic effect)
  • So, play a role in ttt of hirsutism, androgenic alopecia in female
132
Q

What are the side effects of trimatrene?

โ€œCompetes with folic acidโ€

A
  • megaloblastic anemia especially in cirrhotic person
    ( Triamterene is a weak folic acid antagonist)
  • Have no endocrinal side effects .
133
Q

What is used to treat diabetic insipidus?

A

โžข DOC for central DI- ( ADH (Desmopressin) )
โžข DOC for nephrogenic DI- (Thiazides)
โžข DOC for Li+ induced DI- (Amiloride)

134
Q

What are examples of osmotic diuretics?

A

Mannitol (I.V), urea (I.V), glucose (I.V), Isosorbitol (orally), Glycerol(orally)

135
Q

What is the mechanism of action of osmotic diuretics?

โ€œโ€ูˆุจุณุญุจ ุงู„ู…ูŠุงู‡ ููŠ ุทุฑูŠู‚ุฉ ูˆูŠุฎุฑุฌู‡ุง ุจุฑุง ุงู„ุฌุณู…โ€

A
  • They increase osmotic pressure in blood vessel leading to drawing of water from interstial space to blood .Then they are filtered in nephron to increase osmotic pressure inside nephron leading to prevention of water reabsorption.
136
Q

Where do osmotic diuretics act?

A
  • Act on sites that freely permeable to water, PCT, thin descending limb of loop of Henle
137
Q

What are the uses of osmotic diuretics?

A

โ€ข Raised intracranial pressure (cerebral edema).
โ€ข Raised intraocular pressure (glaucoma).
โ€ข prophylactic against Acute renal failure (stimulate urination to prevent anuria) prevent kidney shutdown

138
Q

What are the side effects of osmotic diuretics?

A

โžข if used in acute renal failure :
canโ€™t reach nephron, so remain in blood leading to increased volume of blood , heart failure. And dilutional hyponatremia.

139
Q

When are osmotic diuretics contraindicated?

A

1-Acute Renal Failure
2- Congestive Heart Failure. โ€”> โ€œopposite to loop and k sparring diureticsโ€

140
Q

Give an example for carbonic anhydrase inhibitor

A
  • (Acetazolamide 250 mg oral)
  • methazolamide
141
Q

What is the mechanism of action of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?

A
  • They are sulfonamide derivative that inhibit carbonic anhydrase in PCT reabsorption of Na+ and HC03- and also inhibit Na+/H+ exchange pump in proximal tubule , so inhibit H+ secretion in urine causing metabolic acidosis in blood and alkalininzation of urine
  • Metabolic acidosis due to โ†“ Na Hco3 reabsorption
142
Q

What are the uses of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?

A

1- Used with loop diuretic treat refractory edema .

2- Used to treat Glaucoma because it decrease aquous
humor formation. (methazolamide is prefered because it has less renal and systemic effect). โ€œAway from its diuretic effectโ€

3- Treatment of urate stones and toxicity of acidic drugs by Urinary alkalinization

4- Treatment of alkalosis in emphysema and high altitude sickness

5- Treatment of petit mal epilepsy(suppress irritable focus directly and induce acidosis)

143
Q

What are the side effects of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?

A
  1. Drowsines and confusion : due to metabale acidosis .
  2. Ca and Po4 stones formation due to alkaline urine .
  3. Hypersensitivity โ€“ reaches : due to similarity to sufonamides .
  4. Refractorniess to its diuretic effect due to absorption of Na lost by the drug in more distal parts of nephrons .

5.Hypokalemia (k /Na exchange increases to compensate decreased H/Na exchange)

144
Q

Why are carbonic anhydrase inhibitors contraindicated with hepatic encephalopathy with liver impairment?

A
  • As a cause hypokalemia and patients with liver encephalopathy are already hypokalemic
145
Q

What are the advantages of diuretics in CHF?

A
  • Correction of fluid retention. โ€œThe mainโ€
  • โ†“โ†“โ†“ of blood pressure. โ†“โ†“โ†“ lung congestion
  • โ†“โ†“โ†“ preload (venodilatation and โ†“โ†“โ†“ venous return) and
  • โ†“โ†“โ†“ afterload (due to arterial VD) leads to improvement of cardiac contraction.
  • Spironolactone โ†“โ†“โ†“ morbidity and mortality rates in patients with advanced heart failure.
146
Q

What are the disadvantages of diuretics in CHF?

A
  • Excessive hypovolemia โ†’โ†’ โ†“โ†“ COP.
    โ€œโ€ู„ูˆ ุฒูˆุฏุช ุงู„ุฌุฑุนุฉ ุงูˆูŠ ู…ู…ูƒู† ุชุนู…ู„ ุงู„ุนูƒุณโ€
  • Diuretic-induced acid-base and electrolyte imbalance โ†’ impair cardiac function.
  • Diuretic-induced hypokalemia; can predispose to digitalis toxicity and cardiac arrhythmia.
147
Q

What are the advantages of diuretics in CKD?

A
  • Correction of fluid retention.
  • Reduction of hyperkalemia.
  • Reduction of hypertension.
148
Q

What are the disadvantages of diuretics in CKD?

A
  • Thiazides are ineffective when GFR is <30 ml/min,
  • K+ sparing diuretics can exacerbate hyperkalemia and acidosis.
  • Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (acetazolamide) can exacerbate acidosis.
149
Q

What are the advantages of diuretics in liver cirrhosis?

A
  • Correction of fluid retention.
  • Spironolactone antagonizes aldosterone.
150
Q

What are the disadvantages of diuretics in liver cirrhosis?

A

Aggressive use of diuretics can precipitate:
- Hepato-renal syndrome,
- Hyper-ammonemia and
- Hepatic encephalopathy

151
Q

How do diuretics cause hepatic encephalopathy?

A
  • Diuretics cause hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis which increases the entry of NH3 to the brain
152
Q

How is ammonia trapped?

A
  • Normally, the urine pH is acidic (5.6). In acidic urine, most of the absorbable ammonia (NH3) is converted into the non-absorbable ammonium ions (NH4+) and so it is removed out by the kidney (this is known ammonia trapping).
153
Q

What causes lower limb edema during late pregnancy?

โ€œโ€ุญุงุฌุฉ ุทุจูŠุนูŠุฉโ€

A

hormonal imbalance, and compression of pelvic veins by the enlarged uterus.

154
Q

How can lower limb edema during pregnancy be reduced?

A

Melevating the lower extremities and Wear elastic stockings.

155
Q

Why should diuretics be avoided during pregnancy?

โ€œNo diuretics During Pregnancyโ€

A
  • because they effectively reduce maternal plasma volume and consequently may reduce amniotic fluid and/or placental blood flow.
156
Q

What are the symptoms of pathologic edema?

A

deep venous thrombosis (DVT).
๏ต Unilateral leg edema, redness,
๏ต warmth, and tenderness
๏ต Require evaluation for deep venous thrombosis (DVT).

157
Q

What is the drug of use in each case of the following?

Edema
- Due to CHF
- Due to renal disease or nephrotic syndrome
- Pulmonary edema
- Cerebral edema
- Edema due to cirrhosis

A

Furosemide
Furosemide
Furosemide
Mannitol
Spirolactone

158
Q

What is the drug of use in each of the following cases?

Diabetes insipidus
- Central
- Nephrogenic
- Lithium-induced

A

desmopressin
Thiazides
Amiloride

159
Q

What is a drug of use in recurrent calcium stones in kidney due to hypercalciuria?

A

Thiazides

160
Q

What is the drug of use in acute congestive gluccoma?

A

Acetazolamaide

161
Q

What is the drug of use in acute mountain sickness?

A

Acetazolamide

162
Q

What is the drug of use in nocturnal enuresis?

A

Desmopressin

163
Q

What is the drug of use in SIADH?

A

Fluid restriction + hypertonic saline + furosemide

164
Q

What should happen for diuretics to act?

A
  • Reach their sites
    โ€œโ€ุฃุญูŠุงู†ุง ุจูƒูˆู† ููŠ ู…ุดุงูƒู„ ููŠ ุงู„ูƒู„ูŠ ุชุชุณุจุจ ููŠ ุนุฏู… ุงู„ูˆุตูˆู„โ€
  • Sufficient Na reaches the site of action
165
Q

How do each of these drugs reach its site of action?

Osmotic diuretics
Loop and thiazides
Spirolactone

A
  • With GF
  • Through acidic carrier into the lumen
  • Through peritubular circulation into the cells
166
Q

What causes decrease in reaching each of the following drugs to its site?

Osmotic diuretics
Loop and thiazides

A
  • Acute renal failure โ€œโ€ู…ุด ู‡ุชูˆุตู„ ุฃุตู„ุงโ€
  • Renal dysfunction
167
Q

What happens in edematous states concerning NA concentration at the site of action of the diuretics?

A
  • In edematous state ( HF) R.hypoperfusion โ†’ โ†“ GFR โ†’โ†‘ Na reabsorption from PCT โ†’ โ†“ Na at the rest of nephrone โ†’ โ†“ effect of more distally acting diuretic e.g thiazide more than loop diuretic .
168
Q

What should be avoided during the complete NA restriction in diet?

A

Diuretics

โ€œโ€ู„ู…ุง ุชูƒูˆู† ู…ู‚ู„ู„ ุงู„ู…ู„ุญ ุจู„ุงุด ุชุฃุฎุฐ ู…ุฏุฑ ู„ู„ุจูˆู„ ู„ุงู† ู‡ูŠู‚ู„ู„ู‡ ุงูƒุชุฑโ€

169
Q

How do diuretics cause hypokalemia and alkalosis?

A
  • Diureticsโ†“ Na reabsorption โ†’โ†‘ Na exchange with K or H at DCTโ†’ โ€œIn DCT as compensatory mechanismโ€ alkalosis .
170
Q

How do diuretics interfere with the absorption of electrolytes related to sodium?

A
  • Loop diuretics โ†’ โ†“ Ca reabsorption from Loop of henle
  • K-sparing โ†’ โ†“ excretion of Mg+
171
Q

When are diuretics more effective?

A
  • They are more effective in Cases of โ†‘ intra vascular volume e.g CHF than in cases of โ†“ intra vascular volume e.g Liver Cirrhosis or nephrotic Syndrome (โ†“ plasma protein โ†’ โ†“ osmolarity of blood ) .
172
Q

What happens if diuretics acting at different sites are introduced?

A
  • They have synergistic effect
173
Q

Why is thiazide given with loop diuretics?

A
  • Add thiazide in case of hyperplasia in the cells of DCT due to chronic use of loop diuretics.
174
Q

When are carbonic anhydrase inhibitors given with loop diuretics?

A
  • Add CAEIs acting at PcT to โ†‘ Na delivery to Loop of henle in case of severe HF to improve the effect of Loop diuretic .
175
Q

What do thiazides and loop diuretics enhance?

A
  • digitalis toxicity by causing hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia.
176
Q

When is thiazide contraindicated?

A
  • In renal impairment
177
Q

When are thiazides and loop diuretics used concerning renal failure?

A

โ€ข Thiazides : use till stage 3 renal failure
โ€ข Loop : preferred in sever caseโ†’โ†‘ GFR
โ€ข Mannitol : is vey dangerous in acute RF

178
Q

What are proteins synthesis inhibitors?

A

โ€ข Macrolides
โ€ข Clindamycin
โ€ข Linezolid
โ€ข Aminoglycosides
โ€ข Tetracycline

179
Q

What is the mechanism of action of clindamycin and what is its the spectrum of activity?

A
  • Clindamycin is similar, in the mechanism and kinetics, to erythromycin but has activity against anaerobic bacteria.
180
Q

What are the side effects of clindamycin?

A
  • It is associated with high incidence of diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis as side effect due to superinfection.

โ€œAs it is kinda broad-spectrumโ€

181
Q

What is the mechanism of action of linezolid and what is its spectrum of action?

A
  • Linezolid is similar, in the mechanism and kinetics, to erythromycin but has activity against anaerobic bacteria.
182
Q

What are the side effects of Linezolid?

A

โ€ข Gastrointestinal disturbance
โ€ข Thrombocytopenia

183
Q

What are examples of aminoglycosides?

A
  • Streptomycin (prototype), Gentamicin, Neomycin, Amikacin, Tobramycin
184
Q

What is the pharmacokinetics of aminoglycosides?

A

โ€ข All aminoglycosides are not absorbed orally (must be given parentally) and cannot penetrate to CSF because they are highly polar compounds.

โ€ข They can cross the placental barrier and may cause congenital deafness.

โ€ข They are excreted unchanged in urine by glomerular filtration (dose adjustment is
necessary in renal dysfunction).

185
Q

What are the pharmacodynamics of aminoglycosides?

A

โ€ข Bind to 30S ribosomal subunit and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis

โ€ข Synergistic with penicillin. Because penicillin inhibits cell wall synthesis and facilitate the entry of aminoglycosides to inside the bacterial cell.

โ€ข Spectrum: Gram-negative bacilli and Mycobacteria TB.

186
Q

What are the therapeutic uses of aminoglycosides?

โ€œ2S & 2 Tโ€

A

โ€ข They are used in gram-negative septicemia, usually combined with penicillin. โ€œCritical caseโ€

โ€ข Used orally for sterilization of intestine before surgery.
โ€œAs they arenโ€™t absorbedโ€

โ€ข Used topically for skin and eye infections.

โ€ข Treatment of tuberculosis (never alone) streptomycin

187
Q

What are the side effects of aminoglycosides?

A

โ€ข Neurotoxicity
โ€ข Allergic reactions
โ€ข Nephrotoxicity. โ€œExcreted unchangedโ€
โ€ข Ototoxicity

188
Q

What is the spectrum of activity of tetracycline?

A

Chlamydia infections

189
Q

What is the mechanism of action of tetracycline?

A
  • Bind to 30S ribosomal subunit and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis
190
Q

What are the adverse effects of tetracycline?

A

โ€ข Decrease mineralization of bone and teeth (chelation of Ca) โ€œinterfere with the Absorbtionโ€

โ€ข Contraindicated with pregnancy & lactation & children

191
Q

What are inhibitors of nucleic acid synthesis?

A

Quinolones

192
Q

What are examples of quinolones?

A

โ€ข First generation: Nalidixic acid.

โ€ข Second generation: Pipemidic acid

โ€ข Third generation: Most are fluorinated. They include ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin etcโ€ฆ

โ€ข Fourth generation: e.g. moxifloxacin

193
Q

What is the pharmacokinetics of quinolones?

A

โ€ข The absorption of fluoroquinolones is โ†“ by stomach contents e.g. milk, iron and antacids. โ€œNeed acidityโ€

โ€ข Newer fluoroquinolones (e.g. levofloxacin and moxifloxacin) have long t1/2 (given once daily).

โ€ข They are excreted primarily unchanged in urine, so they are useful in UTIs.

194
Q

What is the pharmacodynamics of quinolones?

A

โ€ข They inhibit type II DNA topoisomerase (DNA gyrase) that is necessary for bacterial replication.

โ€ข Quinolones are bactericidal. โ€œKills DNA, The most important partโ€

โ€ข 3rd generation e.g. have greater activity against gram-negative bacteria and moderate activity against gram-positive organisms and anaerobes. Newer compounds (moxifloxacin) have activities against all.

โ€œNewer are killersโ€

195
Q

What are the therapeutic uses of quinolones?

A

โ€ข Fluoroquinolones are especially indicated in resistant infections.

โ€ข Empiric use of these agents in minor infections should be discouraged.

196
Q

What are the adverse effects of quinolones?

โ€œAffects CTโ€

A

โ€ข GIT: nausea, vomiting (the most common).

โ€ข Arthropathy (in experimental animals): not recommended in children <18 years.

โ€ข Tendinitis and tendon rupture

โ€ข CNS: cautiously in patients with epilepsy.

197
Q

What is the first line therapy of tuberculosis?

A

Essential: โ€œlong durationโ€
- Isoniazid
- Rifampicin
- Ethambutol
- Pyrazinamide

Supplementary :
- Rifabutin/ Rifapentine

198
Q

What is the second line therapy for tuberculosis and what are their characters?

A
  • Less effective, More toxic

โ€œSAAM FECCโ€

  • Streptomycin
  • Amakicin
  • Aminosalicylic acid
  • Capreomycin
  • Cycloserine
  • Ethionamide
  • Fluoroquinolones
  • Macrolids
199
Q

Why are standard antibacterial agents not as effective as specific anti tuberculous drugs?

A

a) Mycolic acid-rich cell wall.
b) Efflux pumps in the cell membrane.
c) Some of the bacilli are hiding inside the patientโ€™s cells

200
Q

What is the antibacterial activity of isoniazid?

A
  • Bactericidal to actively dividing and non-dividing intracellular and extracellular organisms.๏ฟผ
201
Q

What is the mechanism of action of isoniazid?

A
  • Inhibits mycolic acid synthesis (essential component of cell wall).
202
Q

what is the pharmacokinetics of isoniazid?

A

โ€ข Prodrug โ€œactivated by TB, Mutation of TB may cause resistanceโ€

โ€ข Absorbed orally

โ€ข Widely distributed (intracellular, CSF, Necrotic material).

โ€ข Metabolism: mainly acetylation in liver by N-acetyl transferase enzyme. (Fast and slow acetylators)

โ€ข Excreted by kidney (dose adjustment in RF)

203
Q

What are the adverse effects of isoniazid?

A
  1. Hepatotoxicity: This risk increases with age, presence of liver disease, alcoholism, pregnancy. โ€œLAAPโ€
  2. Neurotoxicity:
    โ€ข Increase risk with alcoholism, DM, uremia, malnutrition & slow acetylators โ€œADUMSโ€
    โ€ข peripheral neuropathy (numbness, tingling of lower limbs)
    โ€ข It can be prevented and treated by administration of pyridoxine (vit B6)
  3. Hypersensitivity reactions: Skin rashes, fever and arthralgia.
  4. GIT upset. โ€œOrallyโ€
  5. Haemolytic anaemia โ€œBreakdown of RBCsโ€
  6. Drug interactions: inhibits metabolism of phenytoin.
    โ€œAnti-convulsantโ€™
204
Q

What is the antibacterial activity of rifampicin?

A

โ€ข bactericidal against dividing & non dividing mycobacteria (intra & extracellular) and H.influenza caused meningitis

โ€ข can kill organisms that are poorly accessible to many other drugs

205
Q

What is the mechanism of action of rifampicin?

A
  • Inhibits DNA dependent RNA polymerase leads to inhibition of RNA synthesis.
206
Q

What are the adverse effects of rifampicin?

A
  1. Drug interaction:
    โ€ข Hepatic microsomal induction, Shortens half-life of many drugs (warfarin, oral contraceptive pills).
    โ€ข Major problem with RMP is drug interactions๏ฟผ
  2. Hepatotoxicity (avoided in old age and chronic liver ds)
  3. Hypersensitivity reaction
  4. GIT upset
  5. Red urine & tears

โ€œNo neurotoxicityโ€

207
Q

When is rifabutin used?

A

โ€ข Preferred for TB patients coinfected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) who are receiving protease inhibitors or several of the nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors.

208
Q

What characterizes rifabutin?

A

Less drug interactions.

209
Q

What is the antibacterial activity of Ethambutol?

A

Bacteriostatic

210
Q

What is the pharmacokinetics of Ethambutol?

A

โ€ข Absorbed orally/ wide distributed
โ€ข Excreted mainly by kidney (dose adjustment in RF)

211
Q

What is the mechanism of action of ethambutol?

A

โ€ข Inhibits synthesis of arabinogalactan (component of cell wall)

โ€ข Increase penetration of other drugs into the organisms. Cannot be used alone/ Used in combination of INH of rifampin to prevent resistance.

โ€œIt only perforates cell wallโ€

212
Q

What are the adverse effects of ethambutol?

โ€œEthambutol โ€”-> eye affection

A
  1. Visual disturbance due to optic neuritis.
    โ€ข Increase with higher doses & renal disease
    โ€ข Decrease visual acuity and red/ green blindness
    โ€ข Visual acuity and color discrimination have to tested prior to its administration
    โ€ข Contraindicates in children โ€œas testing is hardโ€
  2. Hyperuracemia โ€œCI in goutโ€
  3. Mild GIT upset, malaise fever, rash, headache and peripheral neuritis.
213
Q

What is the antibacterial activity of pyrazinamide?

A

โ€ข Bactericidal more against slow dividing organisms
โ€ข Effective only against intracellular organism (acidic pH)

214
Q

What is the pharmacokinetics of pyrazinamide?

A

โ€ข Activated by mycobacterium โ€œprodrugโ€
โ€ข Well absorbed orally and wide distribution
โ€ข Excreted mainly by kidney (dose adjustment)

215
Q

What is the mechanism of action of pyrazinamide?

A
  • disrupt cell membrane โ€œnot cell wallโ€ metabolism and transport function.
216
Q

What are the adverse effects of pyrazinamide?

A
  1. Hepatotoxicity (liver function assessed before ttt)
  2. Hyperuricemia
  3. GIT upset.
217
Q

What is the anti-bacterial activity of streptomycin?

A

โ€ข It is bactericidal for extracellular bacilli but it is ineffective against intracellular bacilli.

218
Q

What are the therapeutic uses of streptomycin in treatment of tuberculosis?

A

Therapeutic uses: in combination with INH & rifampin โ€œlike ethambutolโ€ to treat extensive pulmonary TB and renal TB

219
Q

What is the method of administration of streptomycin?

A

I.M injection

220
Q

What is the standard regimen for treatment of tuberculosis?

A
  • Use drug combinations to enhance efficacy and to delay the emergence of resistance (MDR, XDR).

โ€ข ALWAYS USE AT LEAST 2 DRUGS:
โ€ข Begin with 4 drugs
โ€ข If bacilli resistant to 1, will be killed by others
โ€ข Prolonged Length to therapy: 6-9 months DEPENDING UPON the condition
โ€ข Directly Observed Therapy (DOT)

221
Q

Why is the standard regimen for treatment of tuberculosis followed?

A

a) To avoid the development of acquired resistance
b) To reach the intracellular location of mycobacteria
c) To cure latent or dominant disease.

222
Q

How long does the initial phase for treatment of tuberculosis last and what are the drugs administrated in this phase?

A
  • Normally two months
  • HRZ +/- E
  • Daily and observed
223
Q

How long does the continuation phase for treatment of tuberculosis last and what are the drugs administrated in this phase?

A
  • Normally 4 months
  • HR
  • Daily and observed
224
Q

What are anti-TB drugs administrated in cases of pregnancy?

A
  • HREZ can be used during pregnancy.
  • Streptomycin is not given as it can cause ototoxicity to the fetus.
225
Q

What are the precautions that must be taken in case of treatment of tuberculosis in case of liver disease?

A
  • Frequent monitoring of liver function tests is required. Only use 2drugs (HR) or one of them but avoid them in very advanced disease
226
Q

What are the precautions that must be taken in case of treatment of tuberculosis in case of renal failure?

A
  • Dosages may have to be adjusted according to the creatinine clearance especially for streptomycin, ethambutol and isoniazid

Y1B4 (RESP & RAU) ๐Ÿ“™ (8 decks)

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