PG Chapter 2 - Sentences, Fragments, Phrases and Clauses Flashcards
All complete sentences must have a (1) and a (2).
- subject
2. verb
Four things that can be subjects
- Person who does action (Josh runs)
- Thing that does the action in the sentence (The ball zips through the air)
- The person being described in the sentence (Josh is happy)
- The thing being described (The ball is fuzzy)
6 packages a subject can come in
- One noun
- Multiple nouns (aka compound subject) (The dog and cat are noisy)
- One pronoun
- Multiple pronouns (He and she are both awake)
- A phrase (“Staying awake at night” is no fun)
- A clause (“What makes me mad” is all this noise)
Sometimes the subject (1) from you.
- hides (“Run!” implies “you” as the subject)
A clause has a (1) and a (2), while a (3) does not. A clause that cannot stand alone is called a (4). One that can is called a (5) and can function as a sentence or be added to.
- subject
- verb
- phrase (my big fat mouth)
- dependent clause (until I turn sixteen)
- independent clause (My kitten jumps all over me)
Sometimes the difference between a sentence and a fragment depends on a (1).
- comma (Soon after Lola fell asleep)(Soon after, Lola fell asleep.)
3 times it’s ok to use fragments
- For emphasis (There were dinosaurs outside her window. Two of them!)
- For informal dialogue (“More fries for you?”“Sure.”)
- With exclamations/interjections (Oh no!)
Lecture : All (1) are complete sentences, meaning they contain a (2), or topic, and a (3), or what is said about the topic.
- legal sentences
- subject
- predicate
Lecture: What are the subject and predicate in these sentences?
- The room is painted by John.
- Coming after the herd was the wagon.
- Subject - “The room.” Predicate - “is painted by John.”
2. Subject - “the wagon.” Predicate - “Coming after the herd was”
Lecture : The object is something on the (1) of the action. It is part of the (2) and will usually follow a (3).
- receiving end
- predicate
- transitive verb
Find the subject and direct object in this sentence: “Following the herd was the wagon.”
- subject - wagon
2. object - herd
Lecture : A (1) is the person or thing primarily affected, while the (2) is indirectly affected.
- direct object
2. indirect object
Lecture : A (1) is the object in a sentence or clause that contains a linking verb. It is opposite the subject. A (2) describes the subject opposite the linking verb.
- predicate nominative
2. predicate adjective
What parts are these?
I gave Ann(1) her coat(2).
John appears(3) the fool(4).
The soup tastes(5) good(6).
- indirect object
- direct object
- linking verb
- predicate nominative
- linking verb
- predicate adjective
Three cases of pronouns (3 uses in a sentence.)
- nominative (stands for subject)
- objective (stands for object)
- possessive (conveys ownership)
Lecture: (1), which are typically that, which, who, whom and whose, allow you to embed within a sentence (2) about a noun without (3).
- Relative pronouns
- more than one sentiment about a noun
- repeating the noun
Lecture: For example, who is (1) while whom is (2). When paired with a linking verb, a pronoun is (3).
- nominative
- objective
- always nominative
Lecture: A clause contains a (1) and (2) and can be either (3) or (4).
- subject
- conjugated verb
- independent
- dependent (subordinate)
Lecture: No (1) in legal writing! Use (2) for emphasis instead. The most important/abused punctuation is (3).
- exclamation points
- precise words
- commas
Lecture: The (1) is the most likely error of comma usage, and is the separation of two (2) with a comma. To solve this problem, you can (3), (4), or (5).
- comma splice
- independent clauses
- use a semicolon (if clauses are related)
- add a conjunction
- break into two sentences
Lecture: (1) are even worse than comma splices and are the separation of complete thoughts with nothing.
Run-on sentences
Lecture: 4 uses of commas
- separate lists (but not lists of only two items)
- indicate a parenthetical aside (John, my brother, is an engineer.)
- Set off a prefatory clause or introductory phrase (Since she left me, I don’t go out much)
- Set off a quote
Lecture: (1) are used to separate two related independent clauses. They can also be used to set off (2).
- Semicolons
2. multiple series of items (I like steak, chops, and other meats; oats, flax, and other grains; and vegetables.)
Lecture: (1) introduce a list or sentiment you wish to emphasize.
- Colons
Lecture: In legal writing, use slashes ONLY for (1), Use ellipses ONLY for (2).
- fractions
2. omissions
Lecture: 3 rules on quotation marks
- Use single marks to denote quotes within quotes
- Commas and periods go inside quotation marks
- Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks
4 uses of periods
- to end a complete sentence
- decimals
- URL addresses
- some abbreviations
7 abbreviations to use with periods
- Months/Days (Fri., Feb.)
- Titles (Mr,, Dr., Sen.)
- Addresses (Ave., St.)
- Initials in people’s names (Meghan L. Iverson)
- States in lowercase (Col.) but not uppercase (AZ)
- Measurements & time (lb., yd., min.) but not metric (m, kg)
- Some Latin abbreviations (etc., e.g.)
8 abbreviations that do not use periods
1. Agencies, companies, organization (NATO, FBI, YMCA) 2. Computer terms (RAM, DVD) 3. Tests (PSAT, IQ) 4. Radio/television stations (ESPN) 5. Medical terms (PMS, AIDS) 6. Directions (NE, SW) 7. College degrees (BS, JD) 8. Technology/science (mph, UV, rpm, UFO)
Time of day can either be written in (1) or in (2). If you use a period with it, do not (3) but do (4).
- lowercase with periods
- small caps with no periods
- end a sentence with an extra period
- add an exclamation point in addiction to the period
(1) can take question marks or omit them. (2) do not take question marks. If you have a question mark in the middle of the sentence (3). Use a question mark also to indicated (4).
- Polite requests (Would you please bring me the paper? Would you please bring me the paper.)
- Indirect questions (I asked if you were feeling okay.)
- do not capitalize the next letter (Will school be cancelled? was on all the kids’ minds)
- uncertainty (The author lived from 1810 (?) to 1895).
Use a colon when you want to say (1) or (2) or (3).
- Here is what I am talking about
- Here comes an example
- A list follows
3 other ways to use colons
- greetings in formal letters (To whom it may concern:)
- before long, formal quotations (The governor stated to the press: “Blah blah blah lah…blah blah…blah.”
- After words such as caution, wanted, or note
It is your choice whether to (1) the first word after a colon if it begins a complete sentence.
- capitalize
Use a comma after (1), which link two sentences and show how the two are related.
- conjunctive adverbs (however, indeed)
Also use commas to set off (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5).
- introductory phrases/clauses (Since you went without me,)
- emphasized adverbs (Laney ran, fast, and got home in time)
- adjectives that come after the noun (The apple, shiny and red, sat on the desk)
- Direct addresses (Keith, clean your room)
- Interjections (Wow, I like that)
Note that with (1) and in referring to a (2), you have to use a comma afterward too.
- full dates (I was born July 7, 1983, in Mesa)
2. I was born in Mesa, Arizona, in 1983.
2 tricks to knowing whether to separate lists of adjectives with commas
- Can the word “and” be put between them? “It was a dark September night” v. “It was a dark, cold night”
- Can the adjectives be switched around and still make sense? “I work blue tennis shoes” v. “I wore tennis blue shoes”
Use commas before and after (1), (2) and (3).
- Latin abbreviations (I love sports, e.g., basketball)
- parentheticals (They usually cost, if you get a good deal, about $200)
- appositives (The principal, John Bosman, spoke to the class)
Use commas to (1) two parts of a sentence and to indicate (2).
- contrast (She is tall, not short)
2. omitted words (I ordered chicken; she, fish)
A parenthetical expression is used for (1) that is not (2). The sentence could (3) without it.
- by-the-way information
- absolutely necessary
- stand alone
7 ways to use a parenthetical
- explanation (This year (1995) I will turn 30)
- translation (I paid 40 German marks (about $25) for the hat)
- Clarification (The town I live (Phoenix) is big.)
- A feeling (School is cancelled (yay!) today.)
- A joke/play on words (We are having chocolate mousse (no, not moose) for dessert)
- An opinion (We are all out (and I hope we remain out) of liver.)
- A list (Some of my cousins (Bill, Karen, Jim) were at my party.)
Use (1) to insert explanations or instructions that are not actually part of the sentence. (2) add emphasis and make sentences more interesting than conjunctions.
- brackets (My sidekick [Robin] is on his way)
2. dashes
Dashes can (1) or (2). Use them to set off (3), show a (4) in the flow of dialogue, or (5).
- link two parts of a sentence (Always buckle your seat belt–it’s the law)
- emphasize parenthetical expressions (My mom bought me a puppy–a bulldog!–for my birthday)
- long appositives (The fish swam up to us–the colorful kinds you might see in a pet store)
- break (“I definitely studied–or, I think I studies enough–I might not have.”
- sum up a list or idea “Victory–that’s the name of the game.”
Parentheticals are (1) by parentheses, (2) by commas and (3) by dashes.
- hidden
- neutralized
- emphasized
(1) are sticky tape that can join two words together for clarity.
- Hyphens
5 ways to use hyphens
- to join a prefix to a word (all-knowing, ex-husband)
- when a single word is confusing/hard to read (shell-like, re-covered the table, fried-chicken salesman
- in compound adjectives that come before the noun (the 15-year-old girl, up-to-date technology)
- to mean through (read pages 16-20, I was there Monday-Friday)
5 in compound words (president-elect)
Beware using hyphens with an (1) that looks like a compound adjective.
- Adverb paired with an adjective (Baseball is a frequently played sport)
9 titles with which to use underlines/italics
- ships
- aircraft
- spacecraft
- books
- magazines
- newspapers
- movies
- operas
- plays
5 times titles with which to use quotation marks
- songs
- poems
- articles
- short stories
- chapters
(1) or (2) can denote footnotes/separate information
- bullets
2. asterisks
5 uses for quotation marks
- direct quotes (not indirect/paraphrased quotes) (He said, “Get me a Coke.” v. He said to get him a Coke.)
- skepticism (You call this a “bicycle”?
- definitions
- labels, markings, etc. (That sign says “go.”
- clever/silly usage of a word (I love these “flowers” you made me)(He was “a-maized” with the corn)
Start a new (1) for each new speaker. Question marks and quotations can be tricky, but it depends on which is the question–the (2) or the (3). Same thing with (4). If a quotation from one person is longer than one paragraph, there is no (5) until the end of the quote.
- paragraph
- quotation
- whole sentence
- exclamation points
- closing quotation mark
Avoid most (1) and (2) in formal writing. The exception is (3).
- symbols (@, #)
- abbreviations
- titles (Dr., Mr.)
Whether or not to write out numbers is up to discretion, but (1) and consider (2). Do not (3) with a numeral. Spelling out numbers can also help (4).
- be consistent
- how easy it is to read
- start a sentence (344 fans attended the game v. Three hundred forty-four fans attended the game)
- clear confusion (16 six-foot men)
5 examples of when using numerals could make your writing easier to read
- Time (3 hours, 18 minutes)
- Ages (I am 12 years old)
- Money (47 cents, $4.50)
- Addresses
- measurements, weights, temps (7 pounds 10 ounces, 16 degrees, 20 feet by 20 feet)
June 19, 1997
“Today is June (1).”
“Today is the (2).”
- 19 (do not add th if it comes after the month)
2. 19th
Spell out (1) if they contain just one word; otherwise use (2).
- ordinals (first,second)
2. numerals (32nd, 126th)
3 ways a pronoun must agree with its antecedent
- gender
- person
- number
Pronouns like anybody or everybody are (1); there are various solutions to making the pronoun agree: (2), (3), (4).
- singular
- alternate between his and her
- use his/her
- change the antecedent to a plural
