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Human Diversity > Personality > Flashcards

Personality Flashcards

1
Q

Galen (180 BC)

A
  • Life/ health is associated with the body fluids
  • Imbalance and ration of these fluid determine your personality type
    e.g. Blood = sanguine - cheerful, optimistic, confident
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2
Q

Tripartite model of psychology: Freud

A
  1. ID - sexual impulse, aggression, innate desires, pleasure
  2. Super ego - moral, values, ethics
  3. Ego - Blends both together, adaptive behaviour
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3
Q

Gordon Allport - Traits

A

Traits: The fundamental unit of study for personality (Neuropsychic systems with dynamic or motivational properties)
- Not theoretical - are real and can be observed
- Guide and direct behviour
- Not independent - can have overlapping functions
- Can change over time

The proprium: Highest personality structure that contains all aspects of personality - creates consistency and inward unity

Formal arrival of personality psychology

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4
Q

Henry Murray

A

Personality is made up of conflicting voices (conscious and unconscious)

Primary motivational construct is need which interactes with a press (situation)

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5
Q

What is ‘Unity Thema’?

A

A dominant pattern of need-press interaction

The central, organising force that determines personality

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6
Q

Murray’s psychogenic needs (1938)

A

Murray formulated a list of 20 needs - differentiated between:
1. Primary needs - Arises from internal body states, needs for survival, sex and sentience
2. Secondary needs - emotional satisfaction

Needs differ in prepotency: Unsatisfied needs are urgent and dominate behaviour, taking priority over all other needs
e.g. hunger can cause you to act differently

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7
Q

Raymond Cattell

A

Traits - fundamental conceptual unit of personality

The essence of a trait was co-variation and “behind the scenes” factors

Trait is a “mental structure” - inference from observed behaviour to account for regularity or consistency in behaviour

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8
Q

Cattell’s traits

A

Two basic categories of traits:

  1. Suface traits - Features that make up the visible ares of personality
  2. Source traits - underlying factors of personality (surface traits are driven by source traits)
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9
Q

Cattell: 16PF

A

Identified 4500 words that describe traits, then reduced them down to171 key trait names

Used factor analysis to shorten the list to 16 factors. Each factor had varying degrees in individuals. e.g. relaxed -> tense

16 Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF) - Identifies the 16 source dimensions

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10
Q

Factor-analysis approach

A
  • Personality should and could be measured
  • Psychometric analysis of the dimensions - in which people differ from each other
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11
Q

Lexical approch

A

Analysis of personality descriptors that people use
1. People encode in their everyday language, individual differences that allow people to be differentiated
2. Frequency of use of personality descriptors correspond with importance
3. The number of words in a language that refer to each trait will be related to how important that trait is in describing personality

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12
Q

Eysenck’s hierarchial model o personality

A
  1. Specific responses - behavioural responses to the environment
  2. Habitual responses - the way the individual typically behave to a situaion
  3. Traits - collections of habitual responses
  4. Super traits - Fundamental personality traits
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13
Q

What are the two super traits?

A
  1. Extraversion
    (Extraverts) Sociable, impulsive, orientated twoards external reality
    (Introverts) Quiet, introspective, orientated towards inner reality
  2. Neuroticism - emotionally unstable, obsessive, impulsive, irrational fears
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14
Q

What is the third super trait?

A

Neuroticism and extraversion didn’t explain all data so Psychoticism was added
- Insensitive, hostile, cruel, need to ridicule and upset
- Free from anxiety and fear

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15
Q

Eysenck’s PEN model

A

The 3 super traits (Neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism) make up the basic structure of personality
- 2/3 of the variancxe in personality can be attributed to biological factors
- Individuals who score highly on neuroticism or psychoticism are predisposed to develop clinical neurosis and psychosis under adverse circumstances

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16
Q

PEN model advantages

A
  • Combines descriptive and causal aspects of personality in one theory
  • Experimental approach - more testable
  • Neuroticism and extraversion scales have good reliability - can predict a range of behaviours
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17
Q

PEN model disadvantages

A
  • Psychoticism scale has poor reliability - can’t predict clinical psychosis
  • Analysis of personality measures show that the data is better explained by a 5 factor model (instead of 3 factor)
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18
Q

Five factor model of personality

A

Since the rise of factor-analytic studies of personality, there have been debates concerning the number of factors sufficient to describe personality

1990s: Personality can be described by five (uncorrelated) factors or clusters of traits

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19
Q

Big Five Factors: Costa and McCrae

A

Hierarchial model with 5 factors and each consisting of 6 facets (subordinate traits)
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neurtocicism

  • Data-driven approach
  • Descriptive not explaining why
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20
Q

NEO-PI-R

A

Costa & McCrae (1992): Neuroticism, Etraversion, Openness Personality Inventory
- 240 items
- Factors (e.g. openness) - Facets (6) - Descriptors
- No evidence that sum of facets = factors

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21
Q

Openness facets

A
  • Fantasy - Vivid and creative imagination
  • Values
  • Ideas - intellectual curiosity and open-mindedness
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22
Q

Agreebleness facets

A
  • Trust
  • Straightfowardness
  • Altruism
  • Compliance
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23
Q

Extravsion facets

A
  • Warmth
  • Activity
  • Excitment seeking
  • Positive emotions
  • Gregariousness - preference for other people’s company
24
Q

Neuroticism facets

A
  • Anxiety
  • Angry-hostility
  • Depression
  • Vulnerability
  • Impulsiveness
25
Q

Conscientiousness facets

A
  • Competence
  • Order
  • Dutifulness
  • Achievement striving
  • Self-discipline
26
Q

HEXACO model of personality: Lee & Ashton (2008)

A

Additional factor = Honesty-humility
- Fairness, sincerity, loyalty, modest

Honesty-humility
Emotionality
Xtraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Openness to experience

27
Q

HEXACO model criticisms

A
  • Honesty-humility correlates with agreeableness - is it 6 independent factors?
  • Other constructs independent of the big 5 that could be added as a factor - e.g. sexuality-related traits, religion and spirituality
28
Q

Musek (2007): General factor model of personality

A

Factor analysis - Found a single factor that explained the variance in people’s scores on the big 5
General Factor of personality (GFP) → Stability and plasticity → 5 factors → facets

  • Stability (alpha): Conforming and being stable - Emotional stability, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness
  • Plasticity (beta): being open and capacity for change - Extraversion, openness
29
Q

Criticism of GFP

A
  • Ferguson et al. (2011): Correlations between the five factors may be a factor of social desirability (causes by self-report measures)
  • Musek (2017): Controlled for social desirability and GFP remained the same
  • Social desirability is more a personality trait (rather then a response style) - correlations fit into the interpretation of GFP as a measure of social effectiveness
30
Q

Issues with trait theories of personality

A
  • Most theories are theoretical (data-driven) and descriptive (non-explanatory)
  • They don’t explain where traits come from, how they operate and how tey produce differences in behaviour
  • Social-cognitive mechanisms need to be added to explain explain within person variation and individual differences
31
Q

Twin studies on personality traits

(Genetic perspective)

A

Riemann et al. (1997) - compared >1000 MZ and DZ twins on Big 5
- Much higher correlations within MZ twins (around double)
- Therefore, very high heritability estimate for personality traits

Multiple other studies all found similar results - heritability big component of personality (0.3-0.6)

32
Q

Adoption studies on personality

(Gentic perspective)

A

Loehlin et al. (1985): Correlations on personality traits
- Child and bio parent = (0.16-0.34)
- Child and adoptive parent = (0.02-0.12)

Hershberger et al. (1995): MZ twins raised apart - same correlations on extraversion and neuroticism as twins raised together

Bergeman et al. (1993): Genetic influence - Openness (40%), Conscientiousness (29%), Agreeableness (12%)

33
Q

Issues with heritability estimates

A

Heritability = genetic variation in a population
Additive assumption: Influence of genes (heritability) + environment = 100 (not true)
- Dominant genes supress recessive genes
- Certain genes determine whether or not other genes will be expressed

34
Q

Eysenck’s biological model of personality

A

The human brain has two neural mechanisms:
1. Excitatory mechanism: Keeps the individual alert, active and aroused
2. Inhibitory mechanism: Causes inactivity and low energy
→ These two mechanisms are regulated by two independent circuits of arousal

35
Q

Eysenck: Arousal and circuit (extraversion)

A

Reticulo-cortical circuit - incoming stimuli (outside body)
- Introverts: Over-aroused - try to minimise and avoid arousal
- Extraverts: Under-aroused - constanly seeking more arousal

36
Q

Eysenck: Arousal circuit (Neuroticism)

A

Reticulo-limbic circuit - emotional stimuli (inside body)
- In stressful situations, neurotics are more emotionally aroused than emotionally stable individuals

37
Q

Geen (1984)

Arousal and personality

A

Asked introverts and extraverts to choose noise levels of music to listen to while doing a difficult and boring task

  • Extraverts chose higher levels of music than introverts.
  • Extraverts crave more arousal so chose louder music
  • Both groups completed the task well under their chosen conditions, but not in the reverse
38
Q

Kehoe et al. (2020)

Personality and arousal

A

Neuroimaging study - found Neuroticism is linked to:
- Increased reactivity to emotional arousal
- Reduced reactvity for positive stimuli

39
Q

Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST)

A

Personality is based on the interaction between three basic systems in the brain:
1. Behavioural approach system (BAS): Motivation to approach due to reward sensitivty - looking for rewards (extraverts)
2. Behavioural inhibition system (BIS): Motivation to avoid due to punishment sensitivity - anxiety/arousal about potential punishment (Introverts)
3. Flight/fight/freeze system (FFFS)

Neurotics have a combo of BAS and BIS - Punishment sensitive (aroused) and reward sensitive (impulsive)

40
Q

Temperament dimensions

Cloninger’s psychobiological model

A
  • Genetially inherited
  • Responsible for the activation and inhibition of our behaviour and responses to rewards and punishments
    Dimensions:
    1. Novelty seeking
    2. Harm avoidance
    3. Reward dependence
    4. Persistence
41
Q

Character dimensions

Cloninger’s psychobiological model

A

Influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts
- Environment influenced

3 dimensions of character:
- Self-directedness → Individuals own concept of how independent and autonomous they are
- Cooperativeness → How they fit into society
- Self-transcendence → Mystical experiences, religion, faith, spirituality

42
Q

Critiques of Cloinger’s psychobiological model

A
  • Psychobiological theories of personality have inadequate empirical support - Only some parts of the theories are supported by research evidence
    e.g. The relation between neuroticism and arousal is much less well supported than between extraversion and arousal
  • It has been argued that these theories may have oversimplified biological processes in their theory → not enough knowledge on the actual Physiological processes
43
Q

Neural correlates: Extraversion

A

Extraversion is correlated with reward areas and dopamine
- fMRI: Pleasant stimuli stimulates dopaminergic neurons - play a role in rewards and mood
- Dopamine levels manipulated with drugs - extraverts report more positive feelings towards stimuli
- Extraversion positively related to volume of medial OFC - cortical region involved in mointoring reward value of stimuli

44
Q

Neural correlates: Neuroticism

A

Neuroticism is linked to:
- Amygdala - arouses sympathetic nervous system
- medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) - areas associated with down-regulating negative emotions

45
Q

Neural correlates: Conscientiousness

A

Conscientiousness is linked to:
- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC): region in the goal-priotirty network - reorienting attention away from distractors and toward goal-relevant stimuli
- positively associated with functional connectivity in this goal priority network

46
Q

Neural correlates: Evaluation

A
  • Lots of individual pieces of evidence
  • No integrative theory or view on personality being hardwired in the brain
47
Q

Personality and heritability

A

Heritability = 20-50% variance in personality traits
- Shared environment only accounts for a small portion
- Most variance is due to non-shared environment

48
Q

Gene-environmemnt interaction

A

The environment is shaped by the decisions you take

Genes affect the way we perceive and react to the social world

49
Q

Niche building

A

Genes “cause” environment through self-selection → Individuals can choose to create and transform environments according to their preferences or needs

50
Q

Kendler (1997): Niche building

A

Twins asked about social support → shared genes accounted for 43–75% of variance in reported social support, while shared environment showed small effects.

  • Identical twins created a supportive environment that was more similar than non-identical twins
51
Q

Group socialisation (Harris, 1995)

A

An individual’s social identity is based on and derived from the groups one feels they belong to
- Within a group we share specific experiences and interests → reinforcement
- we are socialised by the social groups we identify with → adopt rules and behaviours of a group

52
Q

Group processes that influence personality

A
  • Context-specific socialisation: learning is highly context-specific → can only have certain experiences in specific contexts
  • Group socialisation: socialised by the social groups we identify with → adopt rules and behaviours of a group
  • Transmission of culture: culture is transmitted group-to-group
  • Between-group contrasts: behave in ways that depart from the group we reject
  • Within-group differentiation: differentiate ourselves from our peers within-group
53
Q

Hofstede (1980): Cultural dimensions

A

Survey data on attitudes of employees of IBM, 117,000 ppts. from 71 countries

  1. Individualism-collectivism: The degree to which a person is integrated into groups
  2. Power distance: Acceptance of economic and social inequality (or unacceptace)
  3. Uncertainty avoidance: The discomfort experienced in ambiguous or unstructured situations
  4. Masculinity-femininity: Assertiveness (masculinity) versus nurture (femininity)

Hofstede et al. (2010) added 2 additional dimensions:
- Long vs. short term orientation: focusing on the future vs. the present and past for one’s efforts
- Indulgence-restraint: gratification vs. control of basic human desires related to enjoying life

54
Q

Triandis (2001): Collectivist cultures

A

People in collectivist cultures are more likely to:
- Describe themselves as group members instead of as individuals
- Emphasise collective goals
- Pay more attention to external than internal determinants of social behaviour
- Self-effacing - not making yourself noticeable, not drawing attention

55
Q

Self-construals

A

Individualist: Independent self-construal → Self esteem →SWB
Collectivist: Interdependent → Relationship harmony → SWB

Self esteem and relationship harmonry are equivilent in their respective cultures

Human Diversity (6 decks)

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