Performance contexts

Question 1

Appraisal Theory

Answer 1

• Stress response largely dependent on perception/ interpretationof events (Wolff, 1959)
• Lazarus and Alfert (1964):Before a film showing surgical procedures, some participants received nointroduction or commentary
• Some received commentary that reinforced the benign nature of thefilm
• Heart rate measured as stress indicator
• Results showed when film introduced with low reference topain and harm, stress responses were lower

Question 2

Challenge

Answer 2

• response inactive coping situations represents the fight or flight response

Question 3

Threat

Answer 3

• response is more representative of a distress response, not permitting successful escape or approach behaviour in response to a stressor

Question 4

The Biopsychosocial (BPS) Model of Challenge & Threat (Blascovich & Mendes, 2000; Blascovich& Tomaka, 1996)

Answer 4

• Motivated performance situations can be appraised as either a challenge or threat
• These psychological states differ in the constellation of physiological (particularly cardiovascular) markers

Question 5

The Theory of Challenge & Threat States inAthletes (TCTSA; Jones et al., 2009)

Answer 5

• Together, challenge and threat states can influence performance through decision-making, cognitive functioning, task engagement, and physical functioning

-Typically suggested that a challenge state is beneficial for athletic performance

Question 6

Demands

Answer 6

• Perception of Danger
• Uncertainty
• Required effort

Question 7

Resources

Answer 7

• Self-efficacy
• Perceptions of Control
• Achievement goal

Question 8

Challenge State

Answer 8

When personal coping resources are evaluated as sufficient to meet or exceed situational demands

Question 9

Threat state

Answer 9

When personal coping resources are evaluated as insufficient to meet situational demands

Question 10

Research on Individual Differences: Sex differences

Answer 10

• Gillman et al
• No differences in reported resource appraisals
• Females displayed cardiovascular (CV) responses indicative of a challenge compared to males on approach to stress task

Question 11

Research on Individual Differences: Personality

Answer 11

• Gallagher, 1990; Mak et al., 2004)
• ‘Extraversion’ linked with challenge appraisal, whereas ‘neuroticism’ linked with threat appraisal

Question 12

Research on Individual Differences: Just World beliefs

Answer 12

• A person’s actions are inclined to bring fair consequences; Tomaka & Blascovich, 1994)
• High just world beliefs linked with challenge appraisal and CV

Question 13

Research on Individual Differences: Self Esteem

Answer 13

• Seery et al., 2004; 2008)
• Unstable self-esteem linked with threat response

Question 14

Research on Individual Differences: Basic Psychological needs

Answer 14

• Quested et al., 2011
• High basic psychological needs linked with challenge appraisal and CV

Question 15

Research on Individual Differences: Irrational beliefs

Answer 15

• Dixon, Turner & Gillman, 2017
• Higher irrational beliefs are associated with greater threat, and lesser challenge cognitive appraisals

Question 16

Applied Implications: Being in challenge state can?

Answer 16

• Lead to more facilitative emotions (debilitative in a threat state) (Jones et al., 2009; Skinner &Brewer, 2004)
• Result in better decision making (Jones et al., 2009)
• Greater capacity to offer social support to others (Dixon et al., 2017)
• Can predict better performance (see Behnke & Kaczmarek, 2018; Hase et al., 2019 for reviews)

Findings generally shown support challenge state leads to better performance than a threat state in an array of performance settings e.g., Academic, computer games, sporting performance

Question 17

Rational Beliefs

Answer 17

Psychological health is accompanied by specific rational beliefs:

• Preferences (I want…)
• Anti-Awfulizing (its not terrible or the end of theworld)
• High Frustration Tolerance (HFT) (I can stand it…)
• Acceptance (I not a loser)

Question 18

Irrational Beliefs

Answer 18

Albert Ellis 1950’s- Emotional disturbances accompanied by specific irrational beliefs

• Demandingness- “I must”, “I need”
• Awfulizing- “Its awful”, “it would be terrible if…”
• Low-frustration tolerance (LFT)- “I cant stand it”,“I cant bear it”
• Depreciation- “I’m a complete failure”, “I’m aloser”, “I am a bad person”

Question 19

Irrational vs Rational Beliefs

Answer 19

Irrational:
- Illogical
- Non pragmatic (unhelpful)
- Leads to unhealthy negative emotions
- Leads to maladaptive behaviours (eg: avoidance)

Rational:
- Logical
- Pragmatic (helpful)
- Leads to healthy negative emotions
- Leads to adaptive behaviours (eg: preparation)

Question 20

Froggatt (2005)

Answer 20

• IB’s block individual from achieving goals and can create extreme emotions that persist over time
• IB’s distort reality, as are a misinterpretation of what is actually happening and not supported by evidence
• IB’s contain illogical ways of evaluating ourselves, others and the world

Question 21

Research on IB’s

Answer 21

• Irrational beliefs lead to psychological distress (Turner et al., 2019)
• Heightened Anxiety (e.g., Malouff et al., 1992)
• Irrational beliefs associated with withdrawal and burnout (Turner & Moore, 2016)
• Irrational beliefs associated with Controlled motivation and psychological distress in exercisers (Miller et al.,2021)
• Associated with anger and shame (Kirkby, 1994)

Question 22

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)

Answer 22

• Albert Ellis 1957
• Form of CBT
• Aim to reduce amount of irrational beliefs in favour of rational beliefs
• Focuses on changing how we think in present and the future (than investing past/childhood experiences

Question 23

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy(REBT): A to C thinking

Answer 23

A= Adversity
B= Beliefs
C- Emotional and behavioural Consequences

Question 24

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy(REBT): Irrational Beliefs

Answer 24

A= Adversity
B=Irrational Beliefs
C= Unhealthy negative emotions and maladaptive behaviours

Question 25

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy(REBT): Rational Beliefs

Answer 25

A= Adversity
B= Rational beliefs
C= Healthy negative emotions and adaptive behaviours

Question 26

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy(REBT): Therapeutic process- “D” & “E”

Answer 26

A= Adversity
B= Beliefs
C=Consequences
D= Dispute
E= Effective new belief

Question 27

Disputation (D)

Answer 27

• Practitioner helping client challenge specific irrational beliefs (Dryden,2009)
• Client asked to consider whether there is any evidence for their belief, logical or consistent with reality, and if belief is helpful
• Once irrational belief has been disputed, a rational alternate belief is constructed, in line with theory and in collab between client and practitioner

Question 28

Disputation process

Answer 28

• Evidence- can you prove this “must”
• Logic- what things “must” you have in this world, does your belief fit with this?
• Pragmatics- where is this irrational belief getting you?

Question 29

REBT Effectiveness (E)

Answer 29

• REBT can be completed in as little as 5 sessions for clearly defined issues but more long-term REBT is recommended for more complex issues(Digiuseppe et al., 2014)
• 3 meta-analyses support effectiveness of REBT in both clinical and non-clinical settings ( Lyons and Woods, 1991; Engels et al., 1993; Gonzalezet al., 2004)
• Bernard (2019) review of REBT in workplace shows leaders who adopt rational thinking when dealing with problems and challenges leads to positive impact on business and improved mental health within organisation

Question 30

Irrational Performance Beliefs Inventory (IPBi; Turner et al., 2016

Answer 30

• Developed to measure irrational beliefs within performance domains such as sport, academia, business, and the milotary

Question 31

REBT Considerations

Answer 31

• Allows us to understand how individuals differ in terms of beliefs and how this influences emotions and behaviours
• Criticised for being harsh, formulaic and failing to address deep underlying problems
• What constitutes as “irrational”?- differences of opinion
• Need for subtlety and subjectivity when considering what constitutes “irrationality” for an individual, particular view of mental health outcomes

Question 32

The Big Five: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism associated with:

Answer 32

• Leadership ability (Bono & Judge, 2004)
• Motivation (Judge & Ilies, 2002)
• Coping Strategy (Connor-Smith & Flachsbart, 2007)
• Burnout (Alarcon et al., 2009)

-Team performance (Bell, 2007

Question 33

Personality in Sport & Exercise

Answer 33

• Difference in personality between elite and amateur athletes: Elite more extraverted and emotionally stable than amateur (Egloff & Gruhn, 1996)
• Elite athletes are more conscientious and agreeable, and less neurotic than amateur athletes (Allen et al., 2011)
• Differences in personality between individual and team sports: Team sport likely to be more extraverted (Geron et al., 1986) and less conscientious (Allen et al., 2011)
• Those who exercise are more likely to be extraverted (r = .23), conscientious (r = .20), and less neurotic (r = -.11) (Rhodes &Smith, 2006)
• Those who are likely to be dependent on exercise are likely to be extraverted, agreeable and neurotic (Hausenblas & Giacobbi Jr,2004)