perception Flashcards
James Gibson
- James Gibson is the person who developed the Theory of Direct Perception.
- Gibson was an American Psychologist. His fascination for visual perception started at a very young age.
- particular interest to him was the effect flying an aircraft had on visual perception. He used his findings to help develop training films describing the problems experienced while taking off and landing and visual aptitude tests for screening out pilot applicants.
Gibsons theory directly challenges the traditional approach to vision perception
- G challenged the traditional approach to visual perception, according to which The central
- function of visual perception is to allow us to identify or recognise objects in the world around us. This often involves extensive cognitive
- Processing: it is expensive to interpret what we see and then decide how to interact with it. What we see is a construct of the brain, an interpretation of the world that our brain has created based on information received + our visual knowledge of objects.
- For G perception is far more straightforward. He sees vision perception as a mean to pick up the information we need to interact with the world. It all arrives directly to our eyes – no need for interpretation.
This is why this view is considered more ecological; because it emphasises the role of perception in allowing interactions between the individual and his/her environment.
Gibsons theory of direct ecological perception
- Humans perceive the environment directly.
- «Direct perception is the activity of getting information from the ambient array of light. I call this a process of information pickup that involves . . . looking around, getting around, and looking at things»
Gibson (1979) theory of ecological perception
- Light is the key to vision.
- Light illuminates surfaces of objects in different degrees, depending on how they are in relation to the source of illumination.
- Objects absorb light and reflect it. There are differing degrees of illumination and shade. Depending on their surfaces (e.g. be smooth or irregular) objects will reflect light differently.
As light reflects off objects, it becomes structured, carrying information about their shape, position, and movement
Gibsons (1979) theory of ecological perception- optic array
- OPTIC ARRAY: (Ambient Array of Light)
- Is all the information from the environment that reaches the eye
- = Reflected (solid) angles of light from objects
- Optic Array is SUBJECTIVE – it depends on the observer’s position and orientation (ambient vision – looking around) and motion in the environment (ambulatory vision – sampling light by moving about)
Gibsons theory of ecological perception- criticism of traditional psychophysics
- He criticizes the traditional psychophysics approach of testing vision through static displays.
- e.g., classic tests of depth perception using static 2D stimulus presentations failed to predict student pilots’ performances
- Changes taking place in the surrounding field of light provide important information that static display miss.
- He emphasizes that organisms are seldom passive. Stimulation is often acquired through personal action, obtained rather than imposed.
Due to such active engagement with the world, stimulus input can be modified through both motor movement and movement of the sensory organs
Gibsons theory of ecological perception- information pick up
- INFORMATION PICK-UP
- The brain “picks up” information about objects directly = BOTTOM-UP process
- «The act of picking up information, moreover, is a continuous act, an activity that is ceaseless and unbroken. The sea of energy in which we live flows and changes without sharp breaks.» (Gibson, 1979/1986, p.240).
invariants
- Light provides us with higher-order variables, or invariants
- These are characteristic of the optic array that remain unaltered as observers move around the environment.
- Invariants are picked-up by direct perception.
- «Invariants are patterns in sensory information that are revealed when an organism engages in motor interaction with the environment» (Mossio & Taraborelli, 2008, p. 1328)
dynamic flux
- In this theory, visual “stimulation” is viewed as a dynamic flux, which is produced by changes in the world or by changes in viewing position due to locomotion through the world.
- The dynamic flux produced by motion in the environment is variable and subjective. However, in all of this variability some characteristics will remain constant. These are the invariants of the optic array, and Gibson claims that these invariants are picked up by direct perception, and specify affordances to the perceiving agent.
single lines
- Single lines are a basis for considerable information:
- Inform of edges, corners, horizons, outlines, borders, and other phenomena
- Lines do not inform of texture, shade, or reflectance
- but that information is also available in structured light
- The so-called “perceptual cues”, rather than being deductions of the brain, are also directly available in structured light, e.g.
- occlusion,
- linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance
- distance from the horizon,
texture gradients
- Texture gradients:An extended surface with uniform spatial texture will project a retinal image with a non-uniform texture gradient that increases in spatial frequency as observation distance increases – more coarse and more detailed close to observer, denser and less detailed with increasing distance = information that allows us to judge distance
motion parallax
- Motion parallax (or Relative Motion): motion parallax is a change in position caused by the movement of the viewer.
Motion parallax arises from the motion of the observer in the environment.
This Information about objects is directly provided by the structure of light and does not require inferences.
vanishing points.
motion invariants
- Movement (from self and other objects) provides further information.
- This information is critical to guide our motion and interactions within the environment
- Objects (light) appear and disappear as one moves about.
- Motion gradients relate objects in the visual field with each other with respect to a point of fixation (or “Focus of expansion”).
- OPTIC FLOW: Changes in the pattern of light that reaches the eyes of an observer created when she moves, or parts of the visual environment move
- Objects “growing” or “shrinking” as an observer moves towards or away from them are Optic Flow Invariants, as the array will always transform like this under those conditions.
- A photo can illustrate optic flow if we take a step forward with a camera while the aperture is open (see illustration). The image of the environment moves past our eyes, and the camera, in the opposite direction.
motion information guides our actions: estimating heading direction
- As we navigate through the world…
- we must continually plan where we want to move
- we must try to avoid colliding with obstacles on our path.
- we must check that we are following the planned path.
- To do so we determine our direction accurately and efficiently.
- We rely on several visual cues to achieve this goal.
- And according to Gibson, these are changing patterns of light that our brain directly picks-up
radial outflow hypothesis (Gibson, 1950)
- When moving forward, the pattern of light reaching our eyes (optic flow) expands radially outward from a central point in the visual field.
- This central point is known as the Focus of Expansion (FoE) and corresponds to the direction in which we are heading.
- By detecting this expansion pattern, we can accurately navigate and adjust movement without needing complex cognitive processing.
- Gibson’s Radial Outflow Hypothesis explains how humans use optic flow to determine their heading direction while moving through the environment.
- Key Idea:
- When moving forward, the pattern of light reaching our eyes (optic flow) expands radially outward from a central point in the visual field.
- This central point is known as the Focus of Expansion (FoE) and corresponds to the direction in which we are heading.
- By detecting this expansion pattern, we can accurately navigate and adjust movement without needing complex cognitive processing.
how does radial outflow hypothesis work
- How It Works:
- Forward Motion:
- When walking, running, or driving straight ahead, objects in the visual field appear to move outward from the FoE.
- The speed of this movement depends on how close objects are: nearby objects move faster, distant objects move slower.
- Change in Direction:
- If we change direction (e.g., turn left), the FoE shifts accordingly.
- This shift provides real-time feedback for navigation, helping us avoid obstacles and stay on course.
global outflow
- Optic flow - describes the characteristic distribution of local motion directions across the visual field (appearance of objects as the observer moves past them)
- Gradient of flow - difference in flow as a function of distance from the observer:
- Objects at different distances move at different speeds on the retina of the eye.
- Focus of expansion - point in distance where there is no flow
- With the aid of optic flow, the brain calculates answers to motion-relevant questions
do people use flow information?
- Car fitted with instruments to measure
- Angle of steering wheel
- Speed of vehicle
- Direction of gaze of driver
- When driving straight, driver looks straight ahead, but not at just at the focus of expansion
- When driving around a curve, driver looks at tangent point on the inside of the bend
- This suggests drivers use other information in addition to optic flow to determine their heading
motion and retinal displacement
- Probably heading estimation is provided by two systems in the brain (Snyder and Bischof, 2010; Brain Research):
- One uses motion information (motion-based cues): provides navigational mechanisms and is fast and automatic (fast processing; unlimited capacity)
- One uses retinal displacement (scene-based cues): objects nearer the observer show stronger retinal displacement and are more informative. Provides navigational planning and re-orienting.
This is slower and requires attentional resources (i.e. cognitive load; limited capacity)
Brain area MST is tuned to optic flow
- Medial Superior Temporal area is part of the ‘motion system’ in dorsal extrastriate cortex - area V5/MT.
- Human MST is strongly responsive to coherent optic flow (i.e. large patterns of dots moving with global flow motion)
- Gibson emphasised the role of optic flow in allowing people to move directly towards their goal.
- Certainly this must be important visual information for the brain, in fact there is evidence that the brain contains motion-sensitive neurons that react specifically to optic flow stimuli, translating the optic into a neuronal flow.
- a specific cluster of neurons in the medial superior temporal area is strongly responsive to optic flow.
Britten & Van Wezel 1998
- Britten & van Wezel (1998) electrically microstimulated MST while trained monkeys performed a visual heading discrimination task (i.e. determine whether right or left heading optic flow)
- Microstimulation induced a significant shift of responses in the direction of the stimulated neurons
- In the experiment illustrated, the electrode was positioned in a region of MST containing neurons that consistently preferred leftward heading. Reduced proportions of right choices during micro-stimuliation and thus increased choices in favour of the neurons’ preference
affordances
- Information about the potential use of objects
- Intrinsic characteristics of the objects, which allow for human interaction
“affordances are opportunities for action that exist in the environment and do not depend on the animal’s mind” (Withagen et al., 2012, p.251)
affordances are perceived directly
- Gibson argued that an object’s affordances are perceived directly.
- Briefly seen objects (that afford a motor response) activate the visuomotor system automatically, without conscious perception, and potentiate a subsequent motor response.
- Gibson argued that an object’s affordances are perceived directly.
- affordance effect:
- facilitated manual response to the target when it corresponds to the hand for action with the prime stimulus
affordances- Pappas and Mack, 2008
Pappas and Mack (2008) presented images of objects so briefly they were not consciously perceived. However, each object’s main affordance produced motor priming. Thus, for example, the presentation of a hammer caused activation in brain areas involved in preparing to use a hammer.