attention

Question 1

what is attention?

Answer 1

• “Attention is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence […]. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others […]”
• Key concepts of attention: in a nutshell we can define attention as a cognitive process that allows the taking possession by the mind
  
  • In other words we are bringing things into conscious awareness- picking specific things to pay attention to
• Our brain is bombarded with a lot of sensory information- our sensory system is activated. A lot of information does not get processed in our sensory areas as the brain chooses what to process
  
  • We have a limited capacity to what we can pay attention to
    Over the course of evolution we have evolved in a way where the brain can selectively focus on particular things- important for survival (if something grabs our attention we will shift our attention to that thing)

Question 2

focused attention

Answer 2

• Focused Attention à Selective attention
• Brains ability to prioritise relevant sensory inputs- stuff we are interested in (targets)- ignore irrelevant information (distractors)
• Prioritise behaviorally relevant targets (sensory inputs) and ignoring irrelevant information (distractors)
• Processing of both internal stimuli (e.g., thoughts, hunger, thirst) and external stimuli (e.g., sound, visual)
  Attention helps us to facilitate and prioritise the processing of the stimuli that is task relevant (focusing)- sort of continuous interplay when you select targets and ignore the distractors to focus on the relevant stimuli

Question 3

divided attention

Answer 3

• Divided Attentionà Multi-tasking
• Process different information sources and carry out multiple tasks in the “same” general time
• 2 or more tasks at the same time and splitting your attention between these
  Ability to perform tasks well is under debate

Question 4

the components of selective attention

Answer 4

• Focusing of attention – two parallel processes
  
  • 2 components of selective attention
  • Selection of target information:
  • Suppression of distracting information
• The brain represents stimuli in the environment as three possible forms:
  
  • Target information- stuff in the environment you want to focus on and pay attention to e.g. a person you are having a conversation with
  • Unprocessed stimuli- makes it through the way of sensory processing but does not reach higher order processing e.g. consciousness- stuff that’s there that stimulates our eyes but does not go beyond the sensory areas
  • Distractors- things in the environment that you process but the brain tries to suppress this stuff- in our conscious awareness but not processing it enough- brain blocks this out to focus on the target
• Selective attention helps target processing through two ways:
• Target Enhancement - cortical representations of targets that are behaviorally relevant are enhanced
  
  • The areas of the brain that are activated when you focus on the target
• Distractor Suppression - suppressing the representations of stimuli that are irrelevant
  
  • Everything that is around you the brain suppresses, allowing you to focus on the target

Question 5

endogenous and exogenous orienting

Answer 5

• Exogenous Orienting - Directing attention in response to an external stimulus (i.e., attention capture)
  
  • Attention is captured automatically by external stimulus e.g. when you hear a loud noise you turn your head without thinking about it
  • Fast and reflexive because your brain is wired to detect sudden important events in the environment
  • Bottom up processing- information comes directly from the senses and is processed without prior knowledge or expectations e.g. seeing an unfamiliar object
• Endogenous Orienting - Intentional directing of attention to a predetermined location
  
  • Attention is deliberately directed to based on goals and expectations e.g. looking for your friend in a crowd and looking where you might expect to find them
  • Typically slower as it requires conscious effort as you are doing it yourself
    When your brain uses prior knowledge and ideas to interpret what you are seeing e.g. blurry shape in the distance your brain fills in the gap and you know it is a dog

Question 6

overt attention- specific to visual attention

Answer 6

• Process of shifting attention from one place to another by moving the eyes
  
  • Pay attention to something by directly looking at it
• When we use our central or foveal vision
• Allows full processing of the stimulus = foveation
• The movements of the eyes provide observable signals of how attention is changing over time

Question 7

covert attention

Answer 7

• Brain is fully capable of focusing on targets in the periphery
• Useful because it allows your brain to know that there is something in your periphery and you can use this before you decide to pay full overt attention
• Happens when attention is shifted without moving the eyes
• Seeing something out of the corner of the eye
• Attending the target with peripheral vision whilst keeping fixation on different point

Question 8

external attention

Answer 8

• The selection and modulation of sensory information
• Everything outward that we direct our attention to e.g. in the environment through our senses
• Focusing on objects, locations, sensory details
• This can be stimulus driven (exogenous) or endogenous (goal driven) e.g. focusing on reading a book

Question 9

internal attention

Answer 9

• The selection, modulation, and maintenance of internally generated information (e.g., task rules, responses, long term memory, or working memory)
• Everything on the inward e.g. thoughts, feelings of hunger, memory
• Mostly goal driven and endogenous- we consciously choose where to focus internally

Question 10

problems of focused auditory attention

Answer 10

• Auditory attention is a cognitive process that allows a listener to focus selectively on the stimulus of interest whilst also ignoring all the competing stuff going on
  
  • The listener consciously selects the stimulus and pays attention to it e.g. talking to someone in a club
• McDermott (2009): Two problems listeners face when attending to one voice among many
  
  • Sound segregation – putting together sounds – machine-based
    ○ Separating sound sources e.g. an audio jigsaw where your brain sees what is making sounds
  • Post-segregation – the direction of attention to the source of the sound – ignoring anything else
    ○ Once you do sound separation you still need to decide which ones to focus on and ignore
• Auditory segmentation usually harder than visual segmentation as vision takes up different spaces on the retina
  
  • With sound everything gets combined together in the cochlear- brain has to make sense of all the different sounds that are coming in
  • Considerable overlap of signals from different sound sources in the cochlea whereas visual objects typically occupy different retinal regions.
    There is another important issue – when listeners attend to one auditory input, how much processing is there of the unattended input(s)? – lots of proposals

Question 11

dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1953)

Answer 11

• Famous and presented by Cherry
• Essentially it is a psychological test commonly used to investigate selective hearing or attention and the lateralisation of brain function within the auditory system
• In a standard task the participant is presented with 2 different auditory stimuli at the same time, usually speech, and is directed into each ear
• Asked to pay attention to one or both stimuli and then asked about the content of the stimulus they were instructed to attend to and then they are asked about what they remembered
• Shadowing task essentially is the same but the participant is asked to repeat out loud the contents of the attended input
• This is useful because a lot of findings have revealed that participants did not acknowledge that the language or characteristics of the ignored output have changed, but certain characteristics can be picked up e.g. the tone of the voice or if it changed from a female to a male
• Instrumental in helping us understand the mechanisms in auditory processing sand the cognitive control in attention

Question 12

cocktail party phenomenon- Cherry (1953)

Answer 12

• Selective hearing- tuning into one voice whilst ignoring others
  
  • When you are in a noisy environment how you tune into one aspect of noise and tune out of another e.g. talking to someone at a noisy party
• Brain has the ability to focuses on one auditory stimulus and can filter out other stimulus
• Listeners can segregate different stimuli into different streams for example, if you are at a party, in a noisy environment, you can focus on one conversation with a friend and filter background conversations out
• Been suggested we pay attention to physical characteristics of sound e.g. tone of voice, female or male voice- we may prefer certain characteristics so tune into those sounds
  
  • Have to do this as brain has a limited capacity
    We also have the ability to switch e.g. having a conversation with someone but then hearing your name in another conversation- have an ability to rapidly tune in and tune out of conversation

Question 13

bottleneck- early and late attention

Answer 13

• Bottle neck theory argues that the stuff that gets processed to higher levels goes through the bottleneck- everything else does not get through to higher level processing so gets left in the bottleneck
  
  • Can explain the cocktail party but not for definite
• Limited capacity for paying attention – conceptualized as bottleneck à restricts flow of information
• Narrower the bottleneck the lower the rate of flow
• Cannot consciously attend to all of our sensory input at the same time
  Bottleneck in processing system – limits ability to process 2 or more simultaneous inputs à Cocktail party phenomenon permits listeners to process only the desired voice.

Question 14

Broadbent (1958) Bottleneck- filter modek of attention (also referred to as the early model of attention

Answer 14

• Filter (bottleneck) early in processing – allows information from one input or message through based on physical characteristics. Other input stays briefly in a sensory buffer and is rejected unless attended to very quickly
• Both the unattended and attended sounds go through sensory register (ear)
• Broadbent then argues that we have a selective filter- the attended message gets through to higher level processing is dependent on physical properties of sound e.g. tone, gender, pitch of voice. The attended message makes it through the filter leaving the unattended message blocked in the filter and we won’t pay attention to it unless we rapidly pay attention to it (will make it through the bottleneck to higher level then)
• Oen of the first models to explain how we tune in and tune out- influential model and led on to more models and refining of models
  
  • Important: understand how this works

Question 15

Treisman attentuation model (1964)- late model of attention

Answer 15

• Treisman’s model agrees with Broadbent’s theory of an early bottleneck filter. The key difference between the two theories is that this model attenuates rather than eliminating the unattended material.
• Similar to Broadbent- the only difference is that in Treisman’s model there is an attenuator- it does not eliminate the unattended material
• Attenuating process: like turning the volume down on something (still in the background- not completely forgotten about) so you can focus on the attended message but it is still there
• Explains this cocktail party effect better than Broadbent’s but it does not explain how exactly the meaning side of it works e.g. what happens at the attenuator
  Lack of explanation for the specifics of the attenuator

Question 16

comparison of Broadbent and Treisman

Answer 16

Both models aim to explain how attention selects information from the environment.

They both acknowledge the limited capacity of attention and the need to prioritize certain stimuli over others.

Both models recognize the importance of filtering out irrelevant information to focus on relevant stimuli.

Question 17

contrast Broadbent and Treisman

Answer 17

The main point of divergence lies in the timing of selection: early selection models propose that selection occurs at an early stage of processing, while late selection models propose that selection occurs at a later stage.

Early selection models emphasize the role of physical characteristics in determining what is attended to, whereas late selection models focus more on semantic or contextual factors.

Early selection models suggest that unattended stimuli are not processed beyond basic sensory analysis, whereas late selection models propose that all stimuli are processed to some extent before selection occurs.

Question 18

focused visual attention

Answer 18

• Theory 1: Spotlight Theory à As humans, is our attention considered to be like a spotlight, illuminating a considerably small area at a time?
  
  • Whatever the illumination beam is on we pay attention to
• Theory 2: Zoom Lens à As humans, is our attention like a zoom lens – purposely increasing or decreasing the area of focal attention?
  
  • Is attention like a zoom lens where we zoom in and out of- whatever if in this lens we focus on (can in crease and decrease it)
• Theory 3: Split Focal attention (multiple spotlight theory) à Can we split our focal attention to more areas of space not adjacent to each other (i.e., multiple spotlights)
  
  • We have multiple spotlights and focus on specific targets and nothing else

Question 19

spotlight model of attention- Posner (1980)

Answer 19

• Focused attention – like a spotlight beam that illuminates a particular area of the space
  
  • Very little is processed outside of this beam e.g. a dark stage with one spotlight- only process within the spotlight
  • Should be noted that it isn’t just overtly oriented and can also be covertly oriented
• Attention cueing paradigm- attention is beamed on a spotlight
• Shifting your gaze to what you want to pay attention to one at a time
• Small amount is processed outside the beam and it can rapidly be redirected towards any other location or object
• Focus visual attention to a location by using a cue
• Measure time to identify the target item when the observer does not know where item will appear and when the observer does know where the item will appear
• The spotlight theory proposes that attention functions like a spotlight, selectively illuminating specific areas of focus within the visual field. It suggests that attention is a limited resource that can only illuminate a single point or region at a time.
• : Attention is likened to a focused beam, highlighting certain stimuli while leaving others in the periphery.
• Attentional resources are allocated to specific locations or objects, enhancing processing for attended stimuli.

Question 20

cueing paradigm - Posner & Cohen (1984)

Answer 20

• Made up of 2 place holders and in the middle there is a fixation cross
• Participant looks at the fixation cross (spotlight of the participant is on the cross in the middle)
• The cue will direct the attention to one of the placeholders (where the arrow is pointing) so the spotlight changes
• Fixation cross will reappear when looking at the placeholder
• Then a target will appear- if this appears at the cued location this is a valid trial
• Participant names the colour of the target
• Faster response and a more accurate answer if the target appears within the spotlight of attention. If it appears on the opposite placeholder than this is an invalid trial or location. In this case responses will be slower as you have to direct your attention to the opposite placeholder- even though this is rapid
  This is how the cueing paradigm works

Question 21

zoom lens model of attention (Eriksen & St James, 1986)

Answer 21

• More flexible compared to spotlight
• Visual attention represents a zoom lens- can deliberately increase or decrease the area of focal attention
  
  • If we decrease we receive a lot more visual information. If we have a smaller zoom lens there is faster processing as less things you are not interested in will be included
• In contrast to Spotlight theory, zoom lens argues that attention is more flexible. This theory proposes that visual attention resembles a zoom lens, where we can purposefully increase or decrease the area of focal attention just like a zoom lens can be adjusted to change the visual area it covers.
• The zoom lens theory extends the spotlight metaphor, suggesting that attention can vary in the width of its focus, analogous to a zoom lens on a camera. It proposes that attention can narrow to focus on fine details or broaden to encompass a wider field of stimuli.
• Attentional focus can dynamically adjust, zooming in or out depending on task demands or stimulus salience. It allows for flexible allocation of attention, enabling efficient processing of both fine-grained details and broader contexts
• Attentional flexibility allows for adaptive allocation of resources based on the characteristics of the stimuli and the goals of the observer..

Question 22

split attention model (Awh & Pashler, 2000)

Answer 22

• Attention can be directed to two or more locations which are not adjacent to one another
• Most flexible strategy-
• The brain would save resources because it would avoid to process irrelevant and unnecessary areas of visual space in between two relevant areas
• The split focal theory suggests that attention can be divided among multiple stimuli or regions simultaneously. Unlike the spotlight theory, which implies a single focus point, and the zoom lens theory, which suggests a flexible focus width, the split focal theory posits that attention can be spread across several points or regions concurrently.
• : Attention can be distributed across multiple locations or objects simultaneously, without the need to prioritize a single focus point. It accounts for situations where individuals need to monitor or process information from multiple sources simultaneously.
• Attentional resources are not limited to a single locus but can be divided to facilitate parallel processing of multiple stimuli or tasks.
• Research relates to models of visual attention specifically testing if attention is operated by a multiple spotlight or zoom lens
• Tested this by asking participants to focus on cued locations and then measure their accuracy in finding the target
• Zoom lens prediction: attention spreads out over a single continuous area- when cued to focus on two locations attention should also be high for everything else that falls within that area
• Multiple spotlight predictions: attention can be split into distinct non adjacent areas meaning that the space in between is not well attended to
• Participants shown different locations where targets could appear, received cues on where they could appear and then. Detect the target appearing somewhere in the grid
• They found that in horizontal trials you can see that participants were hugely accurate but then dropped off for the middle location- in other words this supports the multiple spotlight as attention did not spread to the I between locations
• Horizontal trials- performance better in middle than they expect- suggests some spreading of attention in a zoom like manner meaning it wasn’t completely split but spread to different locations
• Supports the multiple spotlight (horizontal trials) and zoom lens theory (vertical trials)
  Suggests visual attention can be divided in separate areas but whether it behaves like a zoom or spotlight theory depends on how the cues are presented e,g. whether the cues or horizontal or vertical

Question 23

comparison of the visual attention theories

Answer 23

All three theories: Address the allocation of attentional resources within the visual field.

Spotlight and Zoom Lens: Emphasize the selective nature of attention, focusing on specific stimuli or regions.

Zoom Lens and Split Focal: Acknowledge the flexibility of attentional focus, either in terms of width (zoom lens) or distribution (split focal).

Spotlight and Split Focal: Highlight the role of attention in prioritizing certain information over others.

Question 24

contrast the visual attention theories

Answer 24

Spotlight vs. Zoom Lens: Spotlight theory suggests a fixed focus point, while zoom lens theory proposes a flexible focus width.

Zoom Lens vs. Split Focal: Zoom lens theory focuses on adjusting the width of attentional focus, while split focal theory suggests attention can be divided among multiple points or regions.

Spotlight vs. Split Focal: Spotlight theory implies attention is concentrated at a single point, while split focal theory suggests attention can be distributed across multiple points simultaneously.

Question 25

space vs object based attention

Answer 25

• When attention is organized around spatial locations in the visual field = SPACE-BASED ATTENTION
• When attention is directed to specific objects = OBJECT BASED ATTENTION
• When attention is being organized around only particular features of an object rather than the whole object or region of space = FEATURE BASED ATTENTION
• The most prevalent ones are the latter ones because attention is typically directed to specific targets / objects

Question 26

divided attention- dual task performance

Answer 26

• Multi-tasking “refers to the ability to co-ordinate the completion of several tasks to achieve an overall goal” (MacPherson, 2018, p. 314).
• Does multi-tasking have beneficial or detrimental effects on attention and cognitive control
• Factors determining if TWO tasks can be multitasked:
  
  • Structure
  • Similarity
  • Resource demand
    Resource allocation / task management

Question 27

divided attention- serial vs parallel processing

Answer 27

• Potentially two attentional mechanisms involved in multi-tasking
• Serial processing - serial processing involves the sequential execution of tasks or operations, one after another.
• Parallel processing - Parallel processing involves the simultaneous execution of multiple tasks or operations.

Question 28

parallel processing

Answer 28

• Tasks are divided into smaller subtasks, which are processed concurrently by different components or units
• Each subtask operates independently of the others, and results are combined or integrated at later stages
• Parallel processing can significantly speed up overall processing time, as multiple operations are carried out simultaneously
  Example: In the brain, visual processing often involves parallel pathways, such as the dorsal and ventral streams, which process different aspects of visual information concurrently.

Question 29

serial processing

Answer 29

• Tasks are processed one at a time, with each subsequent task depending on the completion of the previous one.
• Resources are allocated sequentially, and tasks are completed in a predetermined order
• Serial processing tends to be slower than parallel processing, as tasks are completed one after another rather than simultaneously.
• Example: Reading a book is an example of serial processing, where words are processed one after another in a linear sequence.

Question 30

comparison of serial and parallel processing

Answer 30

Concurrency: Parallel processing involves simultaneous execution of tasks, while serial processing involves sequential execution.

Speed: Parallel processing is generally faster than serial processing, as multiple tasks are processed concurrently.

Resource Allocation: Parallel processing requires multiple resources operating in parallel, while serial processing may utilize fewer resources sequentially.

Complexity: Parallel processing can handle more complex tasks by distributing the workload across multiple processing units, while serial processing may struggle with complex tasks due to its linear nature.

Question 31

contrast serial and parallel processing

Answer 31

Independence: In parallel processing, tasks are often independent of each other, whereas in serial processing, tasks are dependent on the completion of previous tasks.

Resource Utilization: Parallel processing utilizes resources concurrently, while serial processing utilizes resources sequentially.

Flexibility: Parallel processing allows for greater flexibility in task execution, as tasks can be performed simultaneously, whereas serial processing follows a predetermined order, limiting flexibility.

Question 32

2 types of processing- automatic and controlled

Answer 32

• “Automatic processes are those whose operation is unconscious, unintentional, uncontrollable, and efficient, while controlled processes are those whose operation is conscious, intentional, controllable, and inefficient” (Spunt, 2015)
• Automaticity is the ability to do things without occupying the mind with low level details required allowing it to become an automatic response, pattern or habit - Learning, repetition and practice are key to automaticity
• Cognitive components are independently active due to resources being freed up.
• Criteria for Automaticity (Postmer & Synder, 1974):
  
  • It should be unintentional
  • It should occur unconsciously
  • It should occur without depleting additional resources – ongoing cognitive activities