Pathophysiology and Treatment of Arrhythmias Flashcards
Relationship Between ECG and Action Potential
P: atrial depolarization
QRS: firing of the AV node + ventricular depolarization
ST: plateau in myocardial AP
QT: ventricular repolarization
PR interval used as AV node conduction time
Lengthening of QT interval causes an arrhythmia, QT interval is an indicator for risk of arrhythmias
Torsades de Pointes
- When the QTc interval is >/= 500 ms, there is increased risk of the drug-induced arrhythmia known as torsades de pointes
- Torsades de pointes can cause sudden cardiac death
Antiarrhtyhmic agents that may cause Torsades de Pointes
procainamide, flecainide, ibutilide, dofetilide, sotalol, amiodarone, dronedarone
SUPRAVENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIAS
- Sinus bradycardia
- Atrioventricular (AV) block
- Sinus tachycardia
- Atrial fibrillation
- Supraventricular tachycardia
VENTRICULAR ARRHYTHMIAS
- Premature ventricular complexes (PVCs)
- Ventricular tachycardia
- Ventricular fibrillation
Sinus Bradycardia
- Heart rate < 60 beats per minute
- Impulses originating in sinoatrial (SA) node (just too slow)
Sinus Bradycardia MOA
- Decreased automaticity of the SA node
no reentry present
problem in sinus node - depolarizing too slowly
Sinus Bradycardia Etiologies/Risk Factors
- Myocardial infarction or ischemia
- Abnormal sympathetic or parasympathetic tone
- Electrolyte abnormalities * Hyperkalemia
- Hypermagnesemia
- Drugs
- Digoxin
- ß-blockers
- CCBs (Diltiazem, verapamil)
- Amiodarone
- Dronedarone
- Ivabradine
- Idiopathic
Sinus Bradycardia Symptoms
- Hypotension
- Dizziness
- Syncope
Sinus Bradycardia Treatment
- Only necessary if patient is symptomatic
- Atropine 0.5 -1 mg IV, repeat every 5 minutes
- Maximum dose 3 mg
- If unresponsive to atropine:
- Transcutaneous pacing
- Dopamine 5-20 mcg/kg/minute
- Epinephrine 2-10 mcg/min or 0.1-0.5 mcg/kg/min
- Isoproterenol 20-60 mcg IV bolus followed by doses of 10- 20 mcg or infusion of 1-20 mcg/min
Atropine AEs
- Tachycardia
- Urinary retention
- Blurred vision
- Dry mouth
- Mydriasis
Treatment of Sinus Bradycardia After Heart Transplant or Spinal Cord Injury
- Aminophylline 6 mg/kg IV over 20-30 minutes OR
- Theophylline:
o Heart transplant: 300 mg IV followed by oral dose of 5-10 mg/kg/day titrated to effect
o Spinal cord injury: Oral dose of 5-10 mg/kg/day titrated to effect
Sinus Bradycardia Long Term Treatment
*Some patients require a permanent pacemaker (doesn’t regulate QT interval)
* For patients unwilling to undergo implantation of a permanent pacemaker:
* Theophylline oral 5-10 mg/kg/day titrated to effect
Atrial Fibrillation Epidemiology
- 2.7-6.1 million people in the US have atrial fibrillation
Atrial Fibrillation Features
Atrial activity: Chaotic and disorganized – no atrial depolarizations
Ventricular rate: 120-180 bpm
Rhythm: Irregularly irregular
P waves: Absent
Atrial Fibrillation Stages 1 + 2
Stages
* Stage 1
o Presence of modifiable and nonmodifiable risk
factors associated with AF
* Stage 2
o Pre-atrial fibrillation: Evidence of structural or electrical findings that further predispose patients to AF -
§ Atrial enlargement
§ Frequent atrial premature beats
§ Atrial flutter
Atrial Fibrillation Stage 3
- Stage 3
o Atrial fibrillation
3A – Paroxysmal AF: AF that is intermittent and terminates within </= 7 days of onset; 3B – Persistent AF: AF that is continuous and sustains for > 7 days and requires
intervention; 3C – Long-standing persistent AF: AF that is continuous for > 12 months in duration; 3D – Successful AF ablation: Freedom from AF after percutaneous or surgical intervention to eliminate AF
Atrial Fibrillation Stage 4
- Stage 4
o Permanent trial fibrillation: No further attempts at rhythm control after discussion between the patient and clinician
never again in sinus rhythm
Atrial Fibrillation Mechanisms
- Abnormal atrial/pulmonary vein automaticity
- Atrial reentry
abnormal/premature impulse generated in the pulmonary veins that causes reentry –> AF
no fully formed atrial depolarizations
multiple, simultaneously active reentry circuits –> electrical chaos
Atrial Fibrillation Etiologies and Risk Factors
- Advancing age
- Cigarette smoking
- Sedentary lifestyle
- Alcohol
- Obesity
- Hypertension
- Diabetes mellitus
- Coronary artery disease
- Heart failure
- Obstructive sleep apnea
- Valvular heart disease
- Chronic kidney disease
- Familial (genetic)
- Idiopathic
Atrial Fibrillation Social Determinants of Health
socioeconomic status
Atrial Fibrillation Etiologies of Reversible Atrial Fibrillation
- Hyperthyroidism
- Thoracic surgery:
o Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
o Lung resection
o Esophagectomy
Atrial Fibrillation Symptoms
- Maybeasymptomatic
- Palpitations
- Dizziness
- Fatigue
- Lightheadedness
- Shortnessofbreath
- Hypotension
- Syncope
- Angina (in patients with coronary artery disease)
- Exacerbation of heart failure symptoms
Atrial Fibrillation Morbidity/Mortality
- Stroke/systemic embolism– risk increased 5x
- Heart failure–risk increased 3x
- Dementia–risk increased 2x
- Mortality–risk increased 2x
Prevention of Atrial Fibrillation
- Lifestyle and risk factor modification: Weight loss in individuals who are overweight or obese (BMI > 27 kg/m2)
- Physical fitness: Target 210 minutes vigorous exercise each week
- Smoking cessation
- Minimize or eliminate alcohol consumption
- Blood pressure control in patients with hypertension
- Optimal glucose and A1C management in patients with diabetes
Atrial Fibrillation Goals of Therapy
- Prevent stroke/systemic embolism
- Slow ventricular response by inhibiting conductionof impulses to ventricles
o AKA ventricular rate control - Convert atrial fibrillation to normal sinus rhythm
- Maintain sinus rhythm (reduce frequency of episodes)
Atrial Fibrillation - Prevention of Stroke/Systemic Embolism
CHAsDS2-VASc score
* Oral anticoagulants are recommended for patients with atrial fibrillation and the following CHAsDS2-VASc scores:
>/= 2 in men >/= 3 in women
* Oral anticoagulants is reasonable for patients with atrial fibrillation and the following CHAsDS2-VASc scores:
1 in men, 2 in women
* Oral anticoagulants may be omitted for patients with atrial fibrillation and the following CHAsDS2-VASc scores: 0 in men, 0-1 in women
Prevention of Stroke/Systemic Embolism
- DOACs are preferred over warfarin for most patients with atrial fibrillation
Warfarin is preferred over DOACs in the following patients with atrial fibrillation:
o Mechanical heart valves - Target INR 2.5-3.5
o Atrial fibrillation associated with heart valve disease (moderate-to-severe mitral valve stenosis) - Target INR 2.0-3.0
Warfarin or apixaban are preferred in the following patients with atrial fibrillation:
End-stage chronic kidney disease (creatinine clearance < 15 mL/min); Hemodialysis
Warfarin monitoring
- Measure INR at weekly intervals during initiation of therapy
- Measure INR at least monthly in all patients after INR is stable
Comparison of DOACs
apixaban only one used in end-stage kidney disease (CrCl < 15 mL/min)
all p-glycoprotein substrates
Atrial Fibrillation Drugs for Ventricular Rate Control
goal is to inhibit conduction of impulse to AV node (b/c this is where the misfiring occurs)
diltiazem, verapamil - direct AV node inhibition
beta-blockers - direct AV node inhibition
digoxin - vagal stimulation, direct AV node inhibition
amiodarone - beta blocker, CCB
Diltiazem AEs
Hypotension
Bradycardia
Heart failure exacerbation AV block
Verapamil AEs
Hypotension
Bradycardia
Heart failure exacerbation AV block
Beta-blockers AEs
Hypotension
Bradycardia
Heart failure exacerbation (if dose too high or dose increased too aggressively) AV block
Digoxin AEs
Nausea, vomiting, anorexia, ventricular arrhythmias
Amiodarone AEs
Hypotension (IV) Bradycardia
Blue-grey skin discoloration Photosensitivity
Corneal microdeposits
Pulmonary fibrosis Hepatotoxicity Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Hemodynamically unstable
anyone of the 4: SBP < 90 mmHg, HR > 150 bpm, lost conciousness, ischemic chest pain
Atrial Fibrillation Algorithm for Acute Ventricular Rate Control (IV drugs)
hemodynamically stable? - no –> DCC; yes - decompensated HF? - yes –> amiodarone; no –> b-blocker, diltiazem, verapamil –> digoxin –> amiodarone
HR goal: < 100-110bpm and asymptomatic
Do not administer diltiazem or verapamil to patients with
decompensated heart failure (LVEF < 40%)
Atrial fibrillation Algorithm for Long-Term Ventricular Rate Control (Oral drugs)
long-term ventricular rate control –> LVEF > 40% –> b-blockers, diltiazem, verapamil –> digoxin; LVEF </= 40% –> b-blockers –> digoxin
Conversion to Sinus Rhythm
- If AF has been present </= 48 hours, conversion to sinus rhythm is safe
- If AF has been present > 48 hours, conversion to sinus rhythm should not be performed until patient has been anticoagulated for 3 weeks, or unless a transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) has been performed to rule out a clot in the atrium
don’t try in pts with permanent AF
Drugs for Conversion to Sinus Rhythm
DC cardioversion (may be elective or emergent) - simultaneously depolarizes all myocardial cells, allowing sinus node to take over as pacemaker
amiodarone
ibutilide
procainamide
flecainide
propafenone