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Foundations (Year 1) > Pathology > Flashcards

Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

There are various suffixes used to describe benign neoplasia. Some of which are listed below, what do each represent?

  1. -Papilloma
  2. -Adenoma
  3. -Oma
A
  1. -Papilloma = Non glandular epithelium
  2. -Adenoma = Glandular epithelium
  3. -Oma = Mesenchymal tumours
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2
Q

There are various suffixes used to describe malignant neoplasia. Some of which are listed below, what do each represent?

  1. -Carcinoma
  2. -Adenocarcinoma
  3. -Sarcoma
A
  1. -Carcinoma = Non glandular epithelium
  2. -Adenocarcinoma = Glandular epithelium
  3. -Sarcoma = Mesenchymal tumours
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3
Q

What is a carcinogen?

A

Carcinogen = Environmental agent which is mutagenic and increases risk of tumour

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4
Q

What is aneuploidy?

A

Aneuploidy = Inexact multiple of chromosomes e.g. trisomy 21

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5
Q

What is an oncogene?

A

Oncogene = Drives neoplastic behaviour

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6
Q

What is a tumour suppressor gene?

A

Tumour suppressor genes = Inhibit Neoplastic behaviour

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7
Q

What is neoplasia?

A

Neoplasia = A lesion formed as a result of abnormal cell growth which persists after trigger is removed

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8
Q

What is a tumour?

A

Tumour = Swelling

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9
Q

What does the term “malignant” refer to?

A

Malignant = A neoplasm with potentially lethal, abnormal characteristics that has the ability to invade and metastasise

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10
Q

What does the term “benign” refer to?

A

Benign = Opposite of malignant

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11
Q

What does “atrophy” mean?

A

Atrophy = Decreased size

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12
Q

What does “hypertrophy” mean?

A

Hypertrophy = Increased size

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13
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

Metaplasia = Change in shape/ structure

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14
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

Hyperplasia = Increased number

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15
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Dysplasia = Confined neoplastic change (confined with basement membrane/ stroma) aka intraepithelial neoplasia

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16
Q

What is a carcinoma in-situ?

A

Carcinoma in-situ = Really bad dysplasia, not malignant. Cytomorphological features of malignancy but without invasion.

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17
Q

What are 2 examples of oncogene viruses?

A

Oncogene viruses:
- HPV - Squamous cell carcinoma
- EBV (& malaria co factor) - certain lymphomas etc

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18
Q

What are the 6 acute inflammation stages?

A
  1. Release of chemical mediators
  2. Vasodilation
  3. Increased vascular permeability
  4. Fluid accumulation
  5. Cellular recruitment - e.g neutrophil margination & adhesion
  6. Chemotaxis & phagocytosis
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19
Q

What are 4 chronic inflammation cells?

A
  • Lymphocytes
  • Plasma cells
  • Macrophages
  • (Sometimes) Eosinophils
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20
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Cytokines are small proteins which enhance cell mediated immunity and antibody response

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21
Q

What are 4 examples of cytokines?

A

Examples of cytokines:
- Interleukins, TNF - Cell Signalling
- Chemokines - Promote Chemotaxis
- Interferons - Anti viral
- TNF - Promote apoptosis

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22
Q

What is a granuloma?

A

Granuloma = Collection of (epithelioid) histiocytes (stationary phagocytes in connective tissue).

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23
Q

What are 4 conditions associated with granulomas?

A

Associated conditions:
- Foreign body reaction
- Infections e.g. TB
- Sarcoidosis
- Crohn’s disease

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24
Q

What are giant cells?
What are the 3 main types?

A

Giant cells:
- Collision of macrophages (e.g more than one tries to eat a particle)
- Huge multi nucleated cell

There are 3 main types:
- Foreign body - nuclei randomly scattered
- Langhans (often in TB) nuclei horseshoe
- Touton (lipid breakdown or xanthomas) - nuclei circle

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25
What are the 3 main patterns of necrosis?
Coagulative, Colliquiative & fat necrosis
26
What does coagulative necrosis involve?
Coagulative: - Basic arrangement preserved - Example - Ischaemia - Induces caseous and gangrenous necrosis
27
What is caseous necrosis?
Caseous: - ‘Cheese’ like - Includes giant cell & granulomatous formation - Example - TB
28
Gangrenous ‘wet’ vs Gangrenous ‘dry’
Gangrenous ‘wet’ - Coagulation & inflammation Gangrenous ‘dry’ - Sterile coagulation - E.g diabetic
29
What does colliquiative necrosis involve?
Colliquiative: - Minimal connective tissue, arrangement destroyed - Liquifies - Example - focal bacterial brain infection
30
What does fat necrosis involve?
Fat necrosis: - In fat tissue, due to trauma - Via lipases
31
What is atherosclerosis? What are 3 factors involved in atherosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis = wall degeneration, three factors: - Fatty/ lipid streaks - Inflammation - Fibrosis Fibrolipid plaques
32
What are 3 reasons for thrombus in different areas?
Arteries - Endothelial injury Heart - Turbulence in blood flow Veins - stasis of blood flow
33
What is Virchow’s triad?
There are 3 components to Virchow’s Triad: - Hypercoagulability - Malignancy - Pregnancy - Oestrogen therapy - Sepsis - Thrombophilia - Endothelial injury - Venous disorders - Venous valvular damage - Trauma or surgery - Stasis of blood flow - Left ventricular dysfunction - Immobility - Varicose veins - Venous obstruction e.g tumour
34
Where is thrombus/ embolus common in?
Thrombus/ embolus common in… - Deep veins of legs => Blood stasis - Coronary arteries => High pressure => Endothelial injury
35
What is an “Aetiology”?
Aetiology = Causative element in disease
36
What is “pathogenesis”?
Pathogenesis = Sequence of events from healthy state to clinical disease
37
What is a “Sequelae”?
Sequelae = range of possible outcomes of a disease process
38
What is P53?
P53 is a protein, if lost, it can lead to development of cancer, which is more likely to be resistant to treatment.
39
What 4 processes can lead to loss of membrane integrity?
- Failure of ion pumps - Disruption of membrane - Alteration of lipids - Cross linking of membrane proteins
40
What can free radicals be formed by?
Free radicals can be formed by: - Drugs - O2 toxicity - Reperfusion injury - Inflammation - Intracellular killing of bacteria
41
What are 3 non-lethal cell injury?
Non-lethal cell injury: - Hydropic change - Fatty change - Membrane shedding
42
What is phenylketonuria?
Phenylketonuria - Guthrie Test, due to accumulation of phenylalanine, caused by deficiency in enzyme which converts phenylalanine to tyrosine
43
What are some beneficial effects of acute inflammation?
Beneficial effects: - Toxin dilution - Entry of antibodies - Fibrin formation - Drug transport - Oxygen & nutrient delivery - Immune response stimulation
44
What are some harmful effects of acute inflammation?
Harmful effects of acute inflammation: - Digestion of normal tissues - Swelling - Inappropriate inflammatory response - Type 1 hypersensitivity
45
What are two key components of fluid exudate?
Fluid exudate: - Proteins including immunoglobulins - Fibrinogen -> Fibrin on contact with ECM, acutely inflamed organ surfaces commonly covered in fibrin
46
What processes stimulate the movement of neutrophils towards the inflammatory stimulus?
Neutrophils -> inflammatory stimulus: - Margination - Loss of intravascular fluid and increased plasma viscosity allows neutrophils into plasma (only occurs in venules) - Adhesion: - Surface adhesion molecule expression increased by: - Complement C5a - Leukotriene B2 - TNF - Endothelial adhesion molecule expression increased by: - IL1 - Endotoxins - TNF - Transendothelial migration
47
What is Chemotaxis?
Chemotaxis = Locomotion orientated along a chemical gradient
48
What is histamines main function? What releases histamine? What is the release of histamine stimulated by?
Histamine - Vascular dilation - Released by mast cells, eosinophils, basophils & platelets - Release stimulated by C3a, C5a and lysosomal proteins
49
What is a key function of serotonin? Where are serotonin receptors found in high conc?
Serotonin - Increased vascular permeability - 5HT present in high concentration in platelets
50
What is the function of chemokines?
Chemokines = Attract various leukocytes to site of inflammation
51
What are leukotrienes involved in?
Leukotrienes - Type 1 hypersensitivity
52
What is the function of prostaglandins?
Prostaglandins - Increase vascular permeability, stimulate platelet aggregation
53
What allow microorganisms to be recognised by phagocytes?
Microorganisms are not recognised until coated in opsonins: - Fc fragment of IgG - C3b - Collectins
54
What is suppuration?
Suppuration = Formation of pus - neutrophils, bacteria, cellular debris
55
What is the process of “Resolution”?
Resolution = Complete restoration of tissues to normal after episode of acute inflammation
56
What are some macroscopic appearances of chronic inflammation?
Macroscopic appearance of chronic inflammation: - Chronic ulcer - Breach in mucosa, base lined by granulation tissue, fibrous tissue extends through muscle layers - Chronic abscess cavity - Thickening of wall by fibrous tissue - Granulomatous (Crohn’s, TB) - Fibrosis
57
What are 4 different cells types?
Cell types: - Labile - GI Tract, Bone Marrow (can proliferate) - Stable - Hepatocytes, Endothelium (can proliferate) - Permanent - Neurones, Skeletal Muscle (regeneration is not possible) - Stem cells - Pluripotent, differentiate into most cell types
58
What are 2 routes of metastasis?
Routes of metastasis: - Lymphatic = Carcinoma - Haematogenous = Sarcoma
59
Type 1 vs Type 2 diabetes
Insulin Dependent = Type 1 Non-Insulin Dependent = Type 2
60
What are some biochemical complications of diabetes?
Biochemical complications: - Ketoacidosis - Non enzymatic glycosylation - Hypoglycaemia - Lactic acidosis
61
What are some other complications of diabetes?
Other complications: - Macroangiopathy - Diabetic nephropathy - Diabetic retinopathy - Cataracts
62
Central vs Peripheral Obesity
Central = Around waist Peripheral = Thighs & Arms
63
What is the pathogenesis of an atheroma?
Pathogenesis: - Fatty streak - Fibrofatty plaque - Proliferative atheroma - Complicated atheroma
64
What is the aetiology of an atheroma?
Aetiology: - Endothelial injury - Response to injury - Macrophages & platelets - Lipid accumulation - Smooth muscle proliferation
65
What are some complications of an atheroma?
Complications of atheroma: - Thrombosis - Aneurysm - Dissection - Embolism - Ischaemia
66
What is the effect of hypertension on the heart?
Hypertension & the heart: - Left ventricular hypertrophy - Increased LV load - Poor perfusion - Interstitial fibrosis - Micro infarcts - Diastolic dysfunction
67
What is an embolism?
Embolism = Mass of material in vascular system moving from its site of origin to lodge in the vessels in a distant site
68
What are some characteristics, causes and symptoms of DVT?
DVT (Deep Vein Thrombosis) - Post op - Bed bound - Travel - Unilateral leg swelling - Oedema - Pain
69
What are some characteristics, symptoms and effects of a PE?
PE (Pulmonary Embolism): - Sudden onset - Potentially life threatening - Haemoptysis - Coughing Blood - Breathlessness - Cardiovascular collapse & shock - Cardiac arrest
70
What is an infarction?
Infarction: - Zonal necrosis due to sudden occlusion of blood supply - Due to lack of oxygen and nutrient supply - Re-perfusion injury possible due to formation of free radicals - Neurons in brain die in 3 mins without oxygen

Foundations (Year 1) (12 decks)

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