Patho Exam 1 Flashcards
Passive transport carriers (non ATP driven)
Transporters not linked to Na+ gradient
ex. Glucose transporters in pancreas. Insulin signals for transporters to open
Types of connective tissue
loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood.
idiopathic
cause unknown
Proto-oncogenes: nuclear transcription factors
transcription factors are usually sequestered and prevented from random activity
mutations in transcription factor genes may cause overproduction or interference of normal mechanisms.
IgM
first antibody, activates complement
acute clinical course
short-lived, may have severe manifestation
Na+ driven carriers (non ATP driven)
specific sites in the body require a secondary active transport by using Na+ gradient pulls in nutrients and ions
nucleus
largest organelle
protect and preserve genetic information for replication
Carriers (small molecule)
Na+ driven carriers
dysplasia (potentially reversible)
abnormal variations in size, shape and arrangement, often cancerous
What is a shift to the left a sign of?
increased neutrophils are a sign of a bacterial infection
characteristics of neoplastic cells
-altered expression of cellular genes in an accelerated mode
-cellular replication may harm the host if benign and most assuredly if malignant
Gap juntions
Found in most tissues
Allow small molecules to move from cell to cell
Synchronized functions: cardiac muscle, peristalsis, embryogenesis
Lysosome
spherical single layer organelle that originates in the golgi apparatus
contains digestion enzymes
platelet-activating factor
similar effect to leukotriene, platelet activating
interleukin 7
promotes T cell proliferation
Normal WBC?
5000-9000
chronic clinical course
may last moths or years, sometimes following an acute course
Proto-oncogenes: cytoplasmic signaling molecules
Production of excessive or abnormal components of the intracellular signaling pathways. RAS gene mutations in 16-20% (slide 30%) of all human cancers.
communication through secretion
-ligands in the intracellular compartment
-signaling chemicals are secreted and received at specific cell target cells at receptor sites
secretion of chemical mediators via ligands in the form of synaptic, paracrine endocrine and autocrine signaling.
proto-oncogene cause of cancer
gain of function mutations (overactivity of a gene)
Rb gene
considered master brake in the proliferation cycle
loss of function of this gene common in many cancers, named after retinoblastoma
What are the four broad categories of proto-oncogenes?
growth factors/mitogens
growth factor receptors
cytoplasmic signaling molecules
nuclear transcription factors
necrosis
Usually occurs due to ischemia or toxic injury. Characterized by cell rupture, spilling of cell contents into extracellular fluid, and inflammation
sequelae
subsequent pathological condition resulting from an acute illness
how do mast cells release their granules?
degranulation and synthesis of lipid-derived chemical mediators
Injuries which cells are susceptible to (7)
ischemia and hypoxia
nutritional
infectious and immunological injury
physical and chemical injury
two mechanisms of complement activation
classical pathway: initiated by an immune reaction of antibodies triggered by IgG or IgM
alternative pathway: initiated by direct interaction of complement proteins with microbial polysaccharides on first exposure
symptoms
the subjective feeling of abnormality in the body
passive transport (small molecule)
Molecules and ions move in and out of the cell without the use of energy
prostaglandins
product of arachidonic acid from mast cell membranes, similar effects to leukotrienes, induce pain
hydropic swelling
first sign of reversible cell injury
accumulation of water due to increased Na+ concentration in cell
Disruption of Na+/K+ by lack of ATP production
hypertrophy (potentially reversible)
increased cell SIZE related to physiologic of pathophysiologic demands
heart disease
BRCA1+2
Women with defects in BRCA genes have an 85% risk of getting breast cancer. Inherited
Apoptosis
normal physiological process that does not illicit an inflammatory response Orderly process.
convalescence
stage of recovery after a disease, injury, or surgical procedure
Characteristics of injury caused by cellular swelling (3)
-large pale cytoplasm (protein lipid leak)
-dilated endoplasmic reticulum (synthesis of plasma membrane components disrupted)
-swollen mitochondria (functional issues)
What percentage of gene expression happens in a cell?
30-60%
Proto-oncogenes: growth factor (mitogens)
Overproduction of growth factor by a cell can cause the surrounding cells to divide rapidly. Common in brain and connective tissue cancers.
leukotrines
product of arachidonic acid from mast cell membranes, similar effects to histamine
Apoptosis
pathologic cellular death occurs when injury is too severe or prolonged to allow adaption or repair
dry gangrene
common to extremities
blackened, dry, wrinkled tissue separated from healthy tissue from a line of demarcation
cholesterol
comprises 50% of the lipid cell membrane
decreases permeability and prevents loss of water-soluble molecules
Intracellular communication types (3)
gap junction
cell to cell contact
secretion of chemical mediators
gas gangrene
may occur throught the body.
Anaerobic bacterial agent: clostridium
Fatal without aggressive interventions
tertiary level of prevention
rehab, supportive care, reducing disability, and restoring effective functioning following disease
iatrogenic
cause results from unintended or unwanted medical treatment
Types of muscle tissue
cardiac, smooth, skeletal, and myoepithelial
subclinical stage
patient functions normally, disease processes well established
ribosome
minute round particles
sites for protein synthesis
Common gram-negative bacteria
E. Coli
heliobacter pylori
klebsiella pneumonia
hemophilus influenzae
enterobacter
pseudomonas aeruginosa
systemic manifestations of inflammation
fever, leukocytosis >10k, increased plasma protein synthesis (c-reactive protein and fibrinogen)
characteristics of malignant tumors
-always harmful
-metastasis is evident
-invasive and not contained
-anaplasia (variation in cell size and shape and distortion of organelles)
Proto-oncogenes: growth factor receptors
A mutation that causes receptors to appear, normal receptors to become overly abundant, or receptors that have a high affinity for GF. Causes overproliferation.
exacerbation
increase in severity, signs, or symptoms
P53 (tumor supressor)
Inhibits cell cycling when cell is damaged to allow time for DNA repair. Important for initiaiting apoptosis in damaged or unwanted cells.
primary level of prevention
altering susceptibility, reducing exposure for susceptible persons
Four major signs of inflammation
redness, edema, pain, heat
Golgi Apparatus
Cisternae that looks like a stack of deflated balloons
central receiving, transporting, and directing of protein and lipids
somatic death
death of an entire organism
secondary level of prevention
early detection, screening, and management of disease
triggers of apoptosis
- survival signals from a neighboring cell or extracellular matrix are suppressed
- cell triggers its own death
cell to cell contact
receptors with signaling molecules on other cells in extracellular matrix
Develop cell recognition to avoid autoimmune diseases
important for development of the immune response in fetus
What are tight junctions?
multiprotein junctional complexes whose main function is to prevent leakage of solutes and water and seals between the epithelial cells. Tight junctions may also serve as leaky pathways by forming selective channels for small cations, anions, or water.
Four common fungal infections
candidiasis, histoplasmosis, coccidiomycosis, aspergillosis
Four stages of cell differentiation in the embryo
- cell proliferation
- cell specialization
- cell to cell interactions
- cell movement and migration
Four types of localized injury or death of tissue
- coagulative (dry gangrene)
- liquefactive (wet gangrene)
- Fat
- Caseous
Plasma membrane
A barrier composed of lipids (phospholipid bilayer) and proteins that shields the internal cell contents
signs
objective or observed manifestation of the disease
free radical theory of cell aging
cumulative and progressive damage to cell structures (cell membrane)
Normal RBC count?
4.8-5.4 million
consequences of complement activation (4)
- Cytolysis: MAC destroys cell
- inflammation: complement triggers histamine
- opsonization: promotion of phagocytosis
- inactivation of complement: regulatory proteins limit damage to host cells caused by complement
Common gram-positive bacteria
Groups A, B, C, G
streptococcus
staph aureus
enterococcus
listeria monocytogenes
clostridium
The majority of proto-oncogenes are coded for what?
cell proliferation
tumor suppressor gene cause of cancer
loss of function mutations (little gene activity)
Channel Proteins (non ATP driven)
H20 filled pores in the cell membrane
Each channel allows for specific ion to pass
High volume can be moved
Important for the creation of membrane potential used in nerve and muscle function
metaplasia (potentially reversible)
replacement of a differentiated cell type with the same type but better able to withstand injurious stimulation
ex. smokers
interferon gamma
produced by lymphocytes, causes neutrophils to kill bacteria
How are benign and malignant tumors named?
Benign: -oma added to tissue type
Malignant: carcinoma is added to tissue name
tumor necrosis factor-alpha
produced by macrophages, induced fever (endogenous pyrogen), increased synthesis of inflammatory serum proteins, causes muscle wasting and IV thrombosis
ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) (ATP driven)
utilize the energy of ATP)binding and hydrolysis to provide the energy needed for the translocation of substrates across membranes, either for uptake or for export of the substrate.
Cystic fibrosis connected: CFTR stands for cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Mutations in this protein cause the disease Cystic Fibrosis. CFTR is the only ABC transporter that has evolved to operate as a chloride pore instead of actively transporting a substrate.
Bacteria use ABC transporters to pump out antibiotics to create resistance.
Membrane Ca2+ transporters (ATP driven)
found in the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial membrane. Pumps on ER maintain low levels of intracellular Ca2+ and mitochondria kicks in when dangerous levels are reached
Two signs of cell damage
hydropic swelling and intracellular accumulation
programmed senescence theory of aging cells
cells undergo a finite number of replications because of chromosomal shortening
electrochemical gradient (small molecule)
the gradient created by differences in solute charge and concentration outside and inside the cell
Channel proteins (small molecule)
water-filled pore that goes through the lipid bilayer
opens and closes to allow ions to pas through the membrane
ATP driven pumps (small molecule)
Protein pumps powered by ATP move solutes/molecules against an electrochemical gradient. Na+/K+ pump.
catabolism
energy releasing break down of complex molecules (glucose to ATP)
hyperplasia (potentially reversible)
increased mitotic cell NUMBER related to physiologic demands or hormonal stimulation
tropic hormones: breast and uterus
enlargement: liver, heart, thyroid, corns, and calluses
characteristics of injury caused by intracellular accumulations (3)
-toxicity (cell cannot metabolize normal intracellular substances)
-provokes immune response-proteins initiate call for stress proteins called chaperone proteins. Inflammation from coal/tar and heavy metals
-crowd out organelles (cannot function and inhibits solute transport)
Na+/K+ pump (ATP driven)
serves to maintain low Na+ and high K+ inside the cell
atrophy (potentially reversible)
caused by disuse, denervation ischemia, nutrient starvation, interruption of endocrine signals, and persistent cell injury or aging
Mitochondria
Duel membrane sphere or ovoid (25%)
responsible for the conversion of food to usable energy in the form of ATP
etiology
-study of causes or reasons for phenomena
-identifies casual factors acting in concert that provoke a particular disease or injury
Types of epithelial tissue
simple squamous, simple columnar (microvilli/cillia), simple cuboidal, non keratinized stratified squamous, keratinized stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, pseudostratified columnar, and transitional.
the main function of tumor suppressor genes
inhibits excessive proliferation of cells
anabolism
energy-using metabolic process, synthesis of complex molecules
Steps in metastasis (5)
- escape from basement membrane
- move through extracellular space
- enter blood or lymph vessel
- reaches tissue to be colonized and enters through basement membrane
- acquires nutrients and blood supply and starts to colonize
Types of nerve tissue
neurons and neuroglia
wet gangrene
common to internal organs, cold, black, foul smell
Systemic manifestations of irreversible injury (6)
general inflammatory response, malaise, fever, tachycardia, increased WBC, decreased appetite
characteristics of benign tumors (4)
-site of the tumor will determine if it will harm the host
-does not invade adjacent tissue or spread
-possible encapsulation
-resembles tissue type of origin
Three chemical mediators of inflammation
histamine
prostaglandin (pain)
kinin
intracellular receptor-mediated responses
located in cell cytosol or nucleus
specific intracellular receptors bind with ligand, move to nucleus, and bind to specific genes that regulate their activity
cortisol and thyroid hormone
phospholipid
differ in size, shape, and charge of polar heads
membrane-bound proteins require specific phospholipids
endoplasmic reticulum
a membrane that extends through the cytoplasm
transports protein and lipid components
remission
decrease in severity of signs/symptoms, may indicate disease is cured
Normal platelets?
300,000, anything below 150,000 is critical
Functions of the cell (8)
respiration
metabolism
secretion
excretion
reproduction
movement
conduction
communication
functions of the proteins in the cell membrane (5)
-transportation of nutrient molecules and waste
-structural links that connect plasma membrane to adjacent cells
-receptors that catalyze biochem reactions and respond to external signals
-transmembrane that extend across the bilayer to have contact outside and inside cell
-transduction brings extracellular signals into the cell
active transport (small molecule)
energy is needed to transport ions and molecules in and out of the cell
Interferon
protects against viral infections, produced and released by virally infected cells
What are the 4 exceptions to the general tumor naming rules?
hepatoma, lymphoma, melanoma, leukemia, all malignant
Common symptoms/signs of carcinomas (4)
- pain
- cachexia (wasting away)
- bone marrow suppression
- infection (main causes of cancer associated death)
glycoprotein
contain sugar molecules at the polar head
involved in cell recognition and cell to cell communication
