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A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY > Paper 3- Topic 4 Forensic Psychology > Flashcards

Paper 3- Topic 4 Forensic Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

define the atavistic form

A
  • offenders are a ‘genetic throwback’ to earlier primitive species
  • identified by a series of distinguishing physical characteristics
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2
Q

characteristics of the atavistic form

A
  • asymmetrical face
  • narrow, sloping brow
  • prominent jaw
  • dark skin
  • dark curly hair

non physical :

  • unemployment
  • insensitivity to pain
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3
Q

Describe Lombroso’s research and findings

A
  • examined facial and cranial features of 4000+ Italian convicts (dead and alive)
  • found that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by people with atavistic characteristics
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4
Q

Describe Lombroso’s later adaption to his theory and his 3 new types of criminals

A

-recognised role of environmental influences that interacts with inherited form

proposed 3 types of criminals

  • born criminals (atavistic type)
  • insane criminals (mental illness)
  • criminaloids (genetically predisposed to crime, triggered under enivornmental circumstances
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5
Q

1 Strengths of lombroso’s explanation

A

•Lombroso’s research was praised for introducing science to crime

  • moved away from moral discourse (weak minded commit crime)
  • moved towards the influence genetics and evolution
  • based on empirical observation (detailed measurement of offenders)
  • using a large sample size and standardised procedure
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6
Q

3 Weaknesses of Lombroso’s explanation

A

•racist undertones

  • curly hair dark skin, likely from Africa, suggesting Africans are more likely to be offenders
  • supports eugenics movement of the 1900s

•contradictory research

  • Charles Goring studied over 3000 people, convicts and non convicts
  • found no difference in their facial features

•methodology flaws

  • didn’t use control group of non criminals
  • -> can’t compare the characteristics to the general population
  • -> didn’t control for confounding variables that may equally explain crime
  • biased sample
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7
Q

define a gene

A

unit of heredity, made up of DNA, that is transferred from parents to children and controls characteristics

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8
Q

3 ways genetics can explain crime

A

Twin and adoption studies

Candidate genes

Diathesis Stress Model

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9
Q

Describe the twin study on genetic explanations for crime

A

•Lange

  • studied 13 monozygotic (identical) and 17 dizygotic (non-identical) where one of the twins had served time in prison
  • found 10/13 identical twins had a co twin also in prison
  • 2/17 non identical twins had a co time also in prison

-shows a genetic link to crime as the genes in monozygotic twins are the same

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10
Q

Describe the findings of an adoption supporting the genetic explanations of crime

A

• Crowe

  • found adopted children, who’s biological mother had a criminal record, had a 50% chance of having a criminal record by 18
  • whereas, adopted children who’s biological mother didn’t have a criminal record had a 5% chance
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11
Q

Describe a study on candidate genes explaining crime

A

•Tiihonen

  • tested 900 offenders genetics
  • categorised offenders into non-violent, violent and extremely violent
  • found all of the extremely violent criminals had deficits in 2 genes
    - MAOA (regulates serotonin) & CDH13
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12
Q

Findings of a study on candidate genes explaining crime

A

Tiihonen

-estimated 5-10% of all extremely violent crime in Finland was due to the deficit of MAOA and CDH13 genes

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13
Q

How does the diathesis stress model explain crime

A
  • genetic predisposition to crime

- combined with biological (criminal family) or psychological (e.g. role models) triggers

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14
Q

Study showing diathesis stress model as an explanation to crime

A

•Mednick

  • studies 13,000 Danish adoptees
  • found that having a criminal biological parent increases chances of offending in child
  • and if adoptive parent is criminal as well as the biological parent, the chances increase even more
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15
Q

2 Strengths of genetic explanations to offending behaviour

A

•Research to support diathesis stress model

  • Mednick 13,000 danish adoptee study
  • found a higher percentage of offending adoptees when the biological parents were offenders
  • and a higher percentage when biological amd adopted parents were offenders
  • shows role of genes but also environment (diathesis stress)

• Research to support candidate genes role in offending

  • Tiihonen tested 900 Finnish 🇫🇮 offenders
  • categorised offenders into non-violent, violent and extremely violent
  • found all of the extremely violent criminals had deficits ( low activity) in 2 genes:
    - MAOA (regulates serotonin)
    - CDH13
  • they estimated 5-10% of extremely violent crime in Finland was down to an abnormality in one of the 2 genes
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16
Q

2 weaknesses of genetic explanations to offending behaviour

A

•Not applied in court of law

  • murder case of Stephen Mobley, defendant argued he was genetically predisposed
  • wasn’t accepted, still got death penalty
  • justice system based on notion we have responsibility for our actions

•Issues with twin studies

  • assumption of equal environment, not always constant despite being twins
  • ‘MZ’ twins experience more of a ‘shared environment’ (as they look similar so are treated similarly)
  • hence a higher concordance rate for MZ twins in studies like Lange
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17
Q

Neural explanations to offending

A

Brain structures

Mirror neurones and Neurotransmitters

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18
Q

Describe how Brain structures explain offending

A

•Pre-frontal cortex

  • Raine conducted brain imagery studies
  • Found criminals and people with APD had reduced functioning in this area
  • low activity is associated with loss of control of actions

•Limbic system (made up of structures such as thalamus and amygdala)

  • these are linked to emotions)
  • Raine found murderers had reduced activity in limbic system when they were deemed ‘insane’ as their emotional processing of consequences and emotions of victim) is inhibited
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19
Q

Describe how mirror neurones and neurotransmitters explain offending

A

Mirror neurones

  • cells in brain that fire when doing or watching an action
  • help with empathy and interaction in social situations

Neurotransmitters
•Serotonin
-low levels can lead to aggressive as it inhibits prefrontal cortex

•Noradrenaline

  • very high and very low levels associated with aggression
  • v high activates sympathetic nervous system and fight or flight (may overreact in less threatening situations)
  • v low reduces ability to perceive threat (more risky behaviour)
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20
Q

Study on mirror neurones explaining behaviour

A

•Keyser
studied criminals with APD
-found that they only produced empathetic reactions to a video when directly asked to
-suggests mirror neurones are faulty in these criminals with APD amd can be switched on and off

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21
Q

2 strengths of neural explanations for offending

A

•supportive evidence

  • Kandel and Freed
  • reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage and APD
  • found people with this damage show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and an inability to learn from mistakes

•Real life benefits

  • possible method of treatment
  • if low serotonin or abnormal levels of noradrenaline cause aggressiveness people in prison can be given diets to alter these levels
  • to reduce recidivism
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22
Q

1 weakness of neural explanation to offending is

A

•Link between neural differences, APD and offending is complex

  • Farrington studied men who scored high on psychopathy (APD) test
  • found they had experienced various risk factors (neglect, convicted parent) during childhood
  • may be that these factors caused APD and also neural damage due to trauma
  • Other intervening variables may have an impact
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23
Q

Describe Eysenks Personality Theory

A

-proposed that character traits can be represented along there dimensions
• introversion-extraversion
• neuroticism-stability
• psychotic-stability

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24
Q

Examples of psychotism-sociability

A

lack empathy - empathetic

aggressive - calm

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25
Q

Examples of neuroticism - stability

A

impulsive - measured

eccentric - ordinary

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26
Q

What did Eysenck suggest about each trait

A
  • suggested each trait has a biological basis (innate)

- based on the type of nervous system that we inherit

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27
Q

describe the biological basis of extroversion

how it links to criminal behaviour

A
  • determined by under arousal in /under active nervous system
  • seek more arousal and stimulation so engage in dangerous activities
  • struggle to condition so don’t learn from mistakes
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28
Q

describe the biological basis of neuroticism

how it links to criminal behaviour

A
  • highly reactive and unstable sympathetic nervous system
  • respond quickly to fight or flight situations of threat
  • often overanxious, jumpy; and unstable
  • therefore often over-react in situations and behaviour hard to predict
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29
Q

describe the biological basis of psychoticism

how it links to criminal behaviour

A
  • higher levels of testosterone

- more aggressive and lack empathy

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30
Q

Eysenck’s suggested criminal personality

A

neurotic (prone to overreacting to threats)
extravert (seek arousal so engage in dangerous activities)
psychotic (aggressive, lack empathy)

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31
Q

Describe the links of socialisation to personality and offending behaviour

A

Socialisation = children are taught to accept delayed gratification and live socially orientated (live in community rather than on own)

  • Eysenck believed that those with high extraversion and neuroticism scores had nervous systems that make conditioning difficult.
  • therefore likely to want immediate gratification and act antisocially
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32
Q

How Eysenck measured the criminal personality

A

•using the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire)

  • measures the level to which someone responds to personality questions along the E, N, P dimensions
  • determined their personality type
  • using this, Eysenck linked these personality traits to criminality
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33
Q

1 Strength of Eysenck’s Personality Theory

1 counter point

A

•Eysenck and Eysenck
compared 2070 prisoners EPQ score to a control group of 2400
-found prisoners across all age scored higher on E, N and P
- increase validity for all 3 dimensions

•Counter: Study doesn’t look at criminals not caught

  • large % of criminals not included in sample
  • criminals caught may display different personality traits then those who weren’t caught
  • not representative of full criminal population
34
Q

2 weaknesses of Eysenck’s personality theory

A

•cultural factors not accounted for

  • Bartol and Holanchock studied African-American and Hispanic offenders in a max security prison
  • split into 6 groups based on criminal history and nature of offences
  • found all 6 groups were less extrovert than a control group
  • questions generalisability to other cultures

•assumes personality is constant and can be scored

  • too complex and dynamic to be reduced to a score (quantified)
  • people may express different moods and different times so may not be deemed ‘criminal’ at all times
  • also Moffit suggested persistent offending behaviour to be the result of an constant reciprocal process between individual personality traits and environmental reactions to those traits
  • undermined the theory as not static and constant, depends on multitude of environmental factors
35
Q

Cognitive Theory: Two cognitive processes that explain offending

A
  • Cognitive Distortions

* Moral Reasoning

36
Q

Define cognitive distortions

A
  • errors or biases in information processing system
  • characterised by faulty and irrational ways of thinking
  • leads to perception of ourselves, others and the world inaccurately and usually negatively
37
Q

Two examples of cognitive distortions

A

Hostile attribution bias

Minimalisation

38
Q

Describe hostile attribution bias

A
  • tendency to judge ambiguous situations as aggressive, when in reality they are not
  • attributes normal behaviour to negative things
    (e. g. being ‘looked at’ may trigger violent response)
39
Q

Describe minimalisation

A

an individual downplays the consequences or significance of their behaviour

  • believe consequences are not as bad as they seem or justified
    (e. g. sex offenders are prone to this)
40
Q

describe a study showing hostile attribution bias occurs in offenders

A

•Schönenberg and Aiste
- showed 55 violent offenders images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions

-compared to non-aggressive control group, violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile

41
Q

Describe Kohlbergs Moral Reasoning

A
  • summarises people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right or wrong
  • the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning
  • theory based on Kohlbergs interview of boys and men about their moral reasoning about the Heinz dilemma
42
Q

Level 1 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

A

Pre-conventional Morality
>Stage 1
- punishment orientation (obey rules to avoid punishment)

> Stage 2
- instrumental orientation or personal gain (obey rules for personal gain)

43
Q

Level 2 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

A

•Conventional Morality

> Stage 3
- ‘good girl’ or ‘good boy’ orientation (obey rules for approval)

> Stage 4
-maintenance of social order (obey rules to maintain law and order)

44
Q

Level 3 of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

A

•Post-conventional morality

> Stage 5
- morality of contract and individual rights (rules may exist for greatest good but don’t always work in the interest of all, so may be disobeyed)
—>e.g. Heinz saving his wife’s life by stealing
Stage 6
- morality of conscience (rules based on individual’s personal set of ethical principles)

45
Q

What % of adults reach post-conventional morality reasoning

A

10%

46
Q

Where does Kohlberg suggest offenders classify in the stages of moral reasoning

A

•pre-conventional level
-where they believe crime is justified if rewards and outweigh cost of punishment

-individuals at higher levels tend sympathise more with rights of others & show more honest and non-violent behaviours

47
Q

1 strength 1 weakness of cognitive distortions as a way to explain criminal behaviour

A

•use in real world

  • application to therapy
  • CBT explains and challenges irrational thinking
  • encourages offenders to own up to their behaviour reducing ‘minimalisation’ behaviour
  • studies suggest minimalisation in therapy reduces recidivism
  • practical value

•level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence

  • (although) Thornton and Reid found people who commit crime for financial gain (e.g. robbery) were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes (e.g. assault)
  • found that pre-conventional morality is associated with crimes in which there’s a good chance of evading punishment
48
Q

1 strength 1 weakness of moral reasoning as a way to explain criminal behaviour

A

•Research support

  • Palmer and Hollin study of 330 Male and female non-offenders
  • control group of 126 convicts
  • given moral dilemma related Qs
  • results show criminal group show much less maturity in reasoning than non criminal
  • considers women too so fills gap from Kohlberg’s research

•Sample gender bias

  • only studied men and boys
  • disregarded the moral reasoning of women
  • this is beta bias, suggesting men and women are some when we can’t be sure from this evidence
49
Q

Define differential association theory

A
  • explanation to offending
  • individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour through social interaction and association with others

(similar to SLT)

50
Q

Describe Sutherland’s proposed key principles

A

•criminal behaviour is learnt though same process as all behaviour
- through association with intimate personal groups (e.g. friends, family- people they identify with )

•behaviour learned is techniques and attitudes
-these are either directional towards or against committing crime

  • person will become an offender if pro-criminal attitudes outweigh anti-criminal attitudes
  • the frequency and intensity of learning experiences required to become a criminal varies for each person
  • a ‘need’ to commit crime isn’t sufficient explanation —> instead it is socially learned
51
Q

How does Sutherland’s differential association theory link to socialisation in prison

A
  • prison inmates learn criminal techniques from those they identify with, through observation and imitation or direct teaching
  • account for higher recidivism rates after offenders leave prison
52
Q

1 strengths of differential association theory as an explanation of offending and COUNTERPOINT

A

•Research Support

  • Osborne and West found when father has criminal conviction, 40% of sons have committed a crime by age 18
  • 13% of sons have with non-criminal father’s
  • shows criminal behaviours and attitudes are result of social learning

•COUNTER- this could also be explained by biological factors

  • genetic inheritance
  • may be partially correct but a diathesis stress model may offer better account as it combines the social factors with genetic vulnerabilities
53
Q

1 weakness of differential association theory as an explanation of offending

A

•doesn’t account for all types of crime and criminals

  • ‘smaller crimes’ are more subject to social learning influence than more violent crimes (e.g. murder, rape)
  • explanation also can’t explain why most offences are committed bu under 21s.
54
Q

1 strength of differential association theory as an explanation of offending

A

•at time of publishing, it significantly changed the focus of the origin of criminal behaviour

  • started to move away from early biological explanations like Lombroso atavistic theory, and ideas that criminals were weak or immoral
  • showed that bad (deviant) social environments can be at blame rather than bad people
  • highlighted by ‘white-collar crime’ which was committed by those seen as ‘respectable’
  • real world application as ‘bad’ social environments can be changed
55
Q

Define psychodynamic explanations to offending

A

-describing the unconscious drives and instincts that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour

56
Q

Describe features of the superego

A
  • internalised sense of right and wrong
  • based on morality principle
  • punishes the ego for wrongdoing (guilt)
  • Blackburn said that an inadequate superego (under or over developed) gives the ‘id’ free rein so offending is inevitable
57
Q

Three types of inadequate superego proposed by Blackburn

A
  • deviant superego
  • weak superego
  • strong superego
58
Q

Describe the strong / over-harsh superego

A

•based on identification with overly harsh and punitive parent

  • superego is crippled by guilt and anxiety
  • unconsciously drives the individual to offend in order to satisfy the guilt through the punishment
59
Q

Describe the weak superego

A

•absence of a loving same-gender parent during childhood

  • can’t identify with parent and internalise a fully formed superego during phallic stage
  • so it can’t punish the id with guilt
  • leads to selfish, uncontrolled behaviour (no care of others or consequences)
60
Q

Describe the deviant superego

A

•if same gender parent is deviant or immoral

  • a immoral superego with deviant values is internalised
  • leads to offending
61
Q

How does the psychodynamic approach differ to the other explanations of crime

A
  • deals with emotional life of individual
    e. g. role of anxiety and guily in developing offending behaviour
  • accounts for the role of primitive demands in guiding behaviour
62
Q

Describe Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory

A
  • prolonged absence of mother figure during critical period (up to 2.5 years), would result in emotional and intellectual consequences
  • ability to form a warm, continuous relationship with a mother figure allowed for meaningful relationships to be formed in adulthood
63
Q

Effects of maternal deprivation

A

Intellectual development - abnormally low IQ

Emotional development - affectionless psychopathy (don’t experience guilt or empathy)
-as a result, likely to engage in offending

64
Q

Describe Bowlbys 44 thieves study and how it applies to offending

A
  • Bowlby interviewed 44 thieves to see if they were AP
  • interviews their mother to discover any early separation
  • compared to control group of non-criminal, emotionally disturbed young people
  • found 14 thieves were classified as AP
  • 12/14 AP thieves experienced prolonged early separation
  • only 2 out of control group experiences that early separation

-concluded that effects of maternal deprivation lead to development of affectionless psychopaths and therefore offending occurs

65
Q

1 strength 1 weakness of the psychodynamic explanation to offending (Bowlbys Maternal Deprivation)

A

STRENGTH
•Research support
-Goreta did a Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment
-she found disturbances in all of their superegos
-all experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self- punishment (found through offending)
-Goreta explained it as a consequence of a strong / over harsh superego
- supports idea of psychic conflicts leading to offending

WEAKNESS
• Based on an association
-Hilda analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people
- found maternal deprivation was poor predictor or future offending
- the ‘link’ between frequent or prolonged early separation from mother and offending in later life is not necessarily causal
-may be other confounding variables
-maternal deprivation may only be one of many reasons for later offending

66
Q

1 strength 1 weakness of the psychodynamic explanation to offending (Freud’s tri-part personality)

A

STRENGTH
•Research support
Ressler found 42% of 36 sex murderers interviews were sexually assaulted as youngsters
-Dietz and Warren 76% of 41 serial rapists were abused when young
-support for Bowlbys maternal deprivation as they had disrupted early childhood

WEAKNESS
•Gender bias
-assumed in Freuds theory that girls develop a weaker superego than boys, as same gender parent identification is weaker) don’t experience castration anxiety like boys)
-according to the theory, girl’s superego should be less realised and leads them to be more prone to offending
-20x men in prison than women
-alpha bias in the theory

67
Q

define offender profiling

A

• an investigative tool used by police to narrow down the list of likely suspects of a crime, by predicting the profile characteristics of the unknown criminal

68
Q

Define top down approach

A
  • assign offenders to one of two categories based on evidence of the crime scene and nature of crime
  • profilers match this to the pre-existing template
69
Q

4 stages of constructing a top down FBI profile

A
  • Data assimilation (gathering of crime scene evidence)
  • Crime scene classification (organised or disorganised)
  • Crime reconstruction (hypothesis how events occurred and behaviour of victim)
  • Profile generation (hypotehsis about a criminal based on the assigned category and criminal behaviour
70
Q

describe how the top down approach originated

A
  • based on data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers (like Ted Bundy)
  • decided each case could be categorised into two , based on the crime’s characteristics (organised / disorganised murders)
  • if data from a crime scene matched some of the characteristics of one category, we can predict other characteristics that would be likely
71
Q

how does the idea of the “modus operandi” link to top down profiling

A

• idea that serious offender have different ways of working

- and that this links to particular social and psychological characteristics

72
Q

how does the idea of the “modus operandi” link to top down profiling

A

• idea that serious offender have signature ways of working

- and that this correlates to particular social and psychological characteristics

73
Q

describe features of an “ORGANISED OFFENDER”

A
  • shows evidence of planning the crime
  • deliberately target victims (and a certain type of them)
  • high precision and competence (maintain control)
  • little clues at crime scene (hide weapon and body)
  • higher average intelligence (high skill, professional job)
  • socially and sexually competent
74
Q

describe features of a “DISORGANISED OFFENDER”

A
  • little planning (more spontaneous, impulsive)
  • less control and precision at crime scene (leave body or weapon)
  • have lower than average IQ (may be unemployed or low skilled)
  • less socially competent and history of sexual dysfunction
  • tend to live alone and near where crime scene is
75
Q

Describe the bottom up approach

A

systematically analysing data at crime scene to generate a profile of an offender (predict characteristics, social background and motivations)

76
Q

2 forms of bottom up approach to profiling

A
  • investigative psychology

* geographic profiling

77
Q

Describe investigative psychology

and the 2 beliefs central to the theory

A

• apply statistical procedures with psychological theory (IC & FA) to analysis crime scene evidence

create a statistical database, of patterns of behaviour in previous crimes, for comparison

looks for patterns and consistencies in the new crime compared to the previous crimes in the database

specific details of offence can match to previous crimes to reveal important details about offender (e.g. personal history, background, whether a series of offences are linked etc..)

•key concepts are interpersonal coherence and forensic awareness

78
Q

Define interpersonal coherence

A

idea that how the offender behaves during the crime and towards the victim, is linked to their behaviour in everyday situations

79
Q

Define forensic awareness

A

extent to which individuals who have an idea of forensic measures and so ‘cover their tracks’

  • possibly as they’ve been subject to police interrogation before
80
Q

Describe geographical profiling

A

• uses information about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about an offender’s centre of gravity (operational base) and jeopardy surface (location of future offences)

  • based on spatial consistency (idea that people commit crimes within a limited geographical space they are familiar with)

•includes circle theory

81
Q

Describe Canter’s circle theory

A

pattern of offending forms a circle around the offender’s home base

  • based on the distribution of offences, we can describe offenders as
    •marauders- operates close proximity to home base
    or
    •commuters- travelled a distance away from usual residence to offend

these two categories can give insight into whether attack was planned or opportunistic

A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (21 decks)

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