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A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY > PAPER 2- TOPIC 1 APPROACHES ✅ > Flashcards

PAPER 2- TOPIC 1 APPROACHES ✅ Flashcards

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1
Q

not in advanced info

Brief summary of Wundt’s role in the development of psychology

A
  • Wundt opened first lab for psychology
  • He created the first system where he could be the first to analyse the human conscious experience under controlled conditions (through introspection)
  • He conducted a standardised experiment where he gave P’s stimuli of different objects and sounds and recorded their mental processes and experience
  • their observation split into 3 categories: thoughts, images and sensations
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2
Q

not in advanced info

Define introspection

A

examination of ones own mental states or processes, through looking inward
-broken up in basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

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3
Q

not in advanced info

Define structuralism

A

isolating consciousness into structures such as thoughts processes and images

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4
Q

not in advanced info

Explain the emergence of psychology as a science

A

-Wundt’s first lab and coined introspection

BEHAVIOURIST

  • Watson and Skinner thought introspection wasn’t scientific enough as not visible, and was subjective
  • Stated scientific psychology must be observed and measured objectively
  • They brought better controlled methods (experimental methods) that could be observed and measured objectively

COGNITIVE

  • Science advanced were made along with the digital revolution, as the cognitive approach likened the mind to computers (e.g multi-store model)
  • tested predictions using experiments

BIOLOGICAL

  • advances in tech, allowed advanced investigation into physiological processes
  • new scanning techniques (e.g fMRI and EEG) allow study of brain activity
  • new testing methods (e.g. genetic testing) lead to understanding between genes and behaviour
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5
Q

not in advanced info

1 strength 1 weakness of Wundt’s research

A

STRENGTH
•systematic methods
-controlled conditions in lab (control ER)
-standardised procedures (all P’s tested in same way)

WEAKNESS
• unscientific in modern world
-subjective experience
-prone to bias (may have hidden some thoughts)
-hard to establish general laws and cause and effect

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6
Q

not in advanced info

1 strength 1 weakness of modern psychology

A

STRENGTH
•claim to be scientific
-same aims as natural sciences to understand, control and predict behaviour
-controlled methods used by cognitive, learning and biological approach

WEAKNESS
•not all approaches use objective methods
-humanist focus on subjective experience
-psychodynamic use case studies which don’t have representative samples
-Possible demand characteristics shown by P’s

•no paradigm among all approaches

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7
Q

Assumptions of Social learning theory

A
  • all behaviour is learnt through observational learning and modelling of role models actions
  • babies start with a tabula rasa, only learn through experience
  • learning occurs directly (through classical and operant conditioning) and indirectly (vicarious reinforcement)
  • role models are identified to, based on shared characteristics
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8
Q

Define vicarious reinforcement

A

indirectly experiencing reinforcement by observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

imitation will usually only occur when behaviour is rewarded

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9
Q

What are the mediational factors

A

cognitive factors that intervene in the learning process, to decide whether a newly observed response is acquired

Attention- extent we notice behaviours

Retention- how well behaviour is remembered

Motor reproduction- ability to perform observed behaviour

Motivation- the will to perform the behaviour (based on if it was rewarded or punished)

—-> behaviours can be learnt, stored and reproduced at a different time

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10
Q

Define identification

A

an observer’s desire to be associated with a role model as they possess similar or desirable characteristics

—-> people are more likely to imitate the behaviour people they identify with

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11
Q

what is the term used to describe “imitating a role model”

A

modelling
- imitating the behaviour of a role model

BUT, modelling can also mean
- the behaviour of a role model, demonstrating a specific behaviour

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12
Q

Banduras bobo doll study

Aim, Method and findings

A

Aim: studying social modelling of aggression

Method: -observed and recorded the behaviour a group of young children who watched an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll (hitting with hammer, shouting abuse)

  • other group of children watched adults behave normally
  • these children were later observed playing with toys including the bobo doll

Findings: found that the children showed much more aggression toward the doll and toys than those who had observed a non aggressive adult

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13
Q

what does Bandura’s Bobo Doll study show

A

that children are able to learn through the observation and imitation of adult behaviour

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14
Q

Follow up Bandura study and results

A

One group saw video of aggressive adult get praised for behaviour
One group saw video of aggressive adult get punished for behaviour
One group saw video of aggressive adult receive no consequence (control group)

  • The group of children who saw the adult get praised were more likely to be more aggressive
  • then the control group
  • then the children who saw the adult get punished (least likely to be aggressive)
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15
Q

what does Bandura’s follow up study suggest

A

behaviour is only imitated if they observe the behaviour be reward rather than punished

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16
Q

Strengths of SLT

A

•recognises cognitive factors in learning

  • through the meditational processes, humans store info about behaviour of others and use this to make judgments of their own behaviour
  • not accounted for in conditioning
  • so provides more comprehensive explanation of human learning

•applied to range of real world behaviours

  • used by teachers to help increase or reinforce all children in. class by punishing or pos reinforcing one child (vicarious reinforcement)
  • can explain cultural differences in behaviour
  • imitation, modelling and reinforcement can explain how children learn from others, including the media’s impact on children’s idea of social and cultural norms
  • increases value of approach as accounts for real world behaviour
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17
Q

Weakness of SLT

A

• little recognition of biological factors

  • little reference to influence of biological factors
  • Bandura claimed all learning was determined by environment
  • however new research shows that observational learning is the result of mirror neurones in brain which allow us to emphasise and imitate with other people

•ideas come from Banduras experiment which is only on children

  • children brain less developed than adults so study may not work on adults
  • also kids may be more impressionable than adults
  • won’t apply to adults and so can’t be a valid explanation of human behaviour
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18
Q

Assumptions of behaviourist approach

A
  • research should be scientific, observable and measurable (lab studies)
  • —> reject introspection
  • all behaviour is learned through stimulus response
  • basic learning processes (classical and operant conditioning) are the same in all species. So humans are replaced by animals in experiments
  • baby is born with tabula rasa
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19
Q

Classical conditioning

A

•learning by association (involuntary)

  • Pavlov
  • showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if it was repeatedly presented at same time as food
  • bell initially
  • gradually learned to associate them together and salivated (new conditioned response) to the bell (neutral stimulus)
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20
Q

define Operant conditioning

A

learning where behaviour is shaped by its consequences (voluntary)
—> when we operate on our environment

•Skinner
- every time the rat activated a lever it was rewarded with food. The animal kept repeating the behaviour to get more rewards

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21
Q

Define positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment

A

Positive reinforcement- receiving reward or desirable consequence when a behaviour is performed (e.g praise)
—> increase frequency of behaviour

Negative reinforcement- when you avoid a negative consequence due to behaviour

(e. g hand in homework on time)
- —> increase frequency of behaviour

Punishment- unpleasant consequence of behaviour
—> decrease frequency of behaviour

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22
Q

Describe Skinners research

A
  • Aim to see if reward increased likelihood of behaviour
  • rat or pombo pressed lever and food was released
  • rat kept pressing lever to release more food
  • when the consequence of the lever changed, it affected whether behaviour is repeated (punishment = stopped pressing lever)
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23
Q

further skinner research on negative reinforcement and punishment

A

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - when floor was electrified, if they pressed the lever, the floor stopped the electric shock.
- found increase behaviour to prevent unpleasant consequence

PUNISHMENT - if press lever, rat was electric shocked
- reduced behaviour of pressing the lever, due to punishment

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24
Q

Strengths of behaviourist approach

A

•based on well controlled research
- focus on measurable observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings (remove all extraneous variables- valid)

•good application to real world behaviours

  • used by teachers and parents to encourage desired behaviours and stop unwanted ones
  • used in token economy aswell
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25
Q

Weaknesses of behaviourist approach

A

Ethical problems
• animals used in harsh cramped conditions and deliberately kept below weight so they were always hungry

•disregards mental processes
- (mediational processes, cognitive, social learning theory )

•sees all behaviour as based on past conditioning experiences
-ignores free will and conscious decision making processes

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26
Q

not in advanced info

Assumptions of the cognitive approach

A
  • internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
  • these processes of the mind are perception, attention and memory
  • are private and can’t be observed so inferences are made about what’s going on inside people’s minds based on their behaviour
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27
Q

not in advanced info

Define schema

A

•mental framework of knowledge, beliefs and expectations that developed from experience, and influences cognitive processing

(that helps us make sense of stimuli and information and organise it in the brain)

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28
Q

not in advanced info

Why is schema useful

A

Help us:

  • make shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information
  • to draw on aspects of it when in new situations
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29
Q

not in advanced info

Brief summary of the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

include uses of new mapping techniques

A

DEFINITION: scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processing

  • follows on from Broca finding damage to an area in frontal lobe impairs speech production
  • advances led to systematic brain mapping techniques (PET, fMRI, EEG)
  • -> useful in establishing role of some brain structures on mental disorders (e.g cingulate gyri on OCD)
  • -> useful in establishing WMM, as Peterson found semantic and episodic memory on opposite sides of pre-frontal cortex)
  • recent development has led to computer generated models being used to map out and “read” the brain from these scans
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30
Q

not in advanced info

What are the new scanning techniques used in cognitive neuroscience and why are they good?

Describe an experiment using it

A

fMRI, EEG, PET - allow for more scientific and accurate observations of internal mental processes.
Can evaluate and falsify inferences objectively

  • Fink used PET scans to see which areas of the brain are most active when looking at individual details or the holistic view of a picture
  • Fink found that when people focus on details the left hemisphere was the brain is more active and when focusing on whole pic, the right side is more active
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31
Q

not in advanced info

What is the role of theoretical and computer models

And a brief summary of them

A

Used to try and explain human mental processes

Computer- concrete model

  • used computer analogies to explain human processes
  • program computers and see whether the output of humans and computers is similar, when given same instructions
  • use terms like input, output and coding

Theoretical- abstract

  • use diagrams to represent the steps involved in internal mental processes
    (e. g. information processing model)
32
Q

not in advanced info

assumptions of the biological approach

A
  • genetics, evolution, hormonal and neural responses, and biological structures explain behaviour the best
  • al thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis
  • behaviour is innate & varies due to genetics
  • mental illness explained by physical aspects of the body (same as physical illness)
33
Q

not in advanced info

what does the biological approach suggest explains behaviour

A
  • genetics
  • biochemistry (neurochemistry in particular)
  • evolution
  • biological structure
34
Q

define genotype

define phenotype

A

genotype- person’s genetic makeup

phenotype- genes expresses through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics due to a combined effect of genes and environment

35
Q

not in advanced info

define concordance rates

A

level of similarity between two individuals

36
Q

not in advanced info

brief summary of Gottezman study

A

Gottezman

found concordance rates for schizophrenia

  • 48% to monozygotic twins
  • higher % than in dizygotic twins
  • 1% to general population
  • showed that genetics is only partial cause as not 100%
37
Q

define biochemistry

and neurochemistry

A
  • concerned with how chemicals in our body work
    (hormones, neurotransmitters)
  • action of chemicals on the brain that affect thinking and behaviour
38
Q

not in advanced info

role of neurotransmitters

what does the imbalance of the 2 types lead to

A
  • chemical that relay impulses from one cell to another across a synapse

dopamine- high levels leads to schizophrenia
serotonin- low levels leads to OCD

39
Q

not in advanced info

three biological structures that dictate behaviour

A
  • brain structure- certain areas of the brain control different behaviours (e.g. brocas- speech production, wernickes- speech comprehension)
  • nervous system- collects and processes information from environment and responds to it
  • endocrine system- network of glands that regulate the hormone levels and functions of the body
40
Q

not in advanced info

define evolution

A

evolution is the gradual changes in genetic characteristics of a species over generations

41
Q

not in advanced info

describe natural selection

A
  • Darwin’s proposed theory of evolution
  • desirable behaviours that led to enhanced survival chances would make these animals more likely to survive (survival of the fittest) and therefore reproduce
  • leading to them passing on their desirable genes to their offspring
  • this changes the genetic combinations in the new population (evolution)
42
Q

not in advanced info

strengths of biological approach

A

+practical applications

  • increased understanding of neurochemical processes
  • drugs used to treat disorders - less need for hospital

+uses scientific methods of investigation

  • fMRI, EEG
  • not bias, precise, valid
43
Q

not in advanced info

weaknesses of biological approach

A

+deterministic and takes blame away from individual
-sees behaviour as a result of internal causes we have no control

+concordance rate for schzio in Gottezman study was 50%
-not entirely genetic

44
Q

assumptions of humanistic approach

A
  • self determining our destiny and have free will
  • people are still affected by external influences, but are active agents in determining their own development
  • reject scientific general principles (nomothetic), focus on subjective study (person-centred approach)
  • believe personal growth as essential in all humans so they can develop to become fulfilled and satisfied
45
Q

describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

• a hierarchical, 5 level sequence of what motivates behaviour
- which shows that deficiency needs must be met in order to reach the innate growth need: self actualisation

  • person can only progress through hierarchy if they meet the current level need
  • suggests basic survival needs must all be met before higher psychological needs can be met (e.g. self actualisation)
46
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

Self actualisation

Esteem

Love/belonging

Safety and Security

Physiological

47
Q

flashcard to remember order of maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A 
S
E
L
S
P

SELL SIMON PETRI

Self actualisation
Esteem
Love/Belonging
Safety
Physiological
48
Q

examples of each of maslow’s needs

and define self actualisation

A

Self actualisation- self-defined and innate need to grow and achieve full personal potential

Esteem- confidence, sense of achievement, respect from others

Love/belonging- family, sexual intimacy

safety- health, a home, job security

physiological- water, sex, food

49
Q

what does Rogers suggest personal growth is

A

developing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated

50
Q

define self concept and ideal self

A

self concept- the way a person sees themselves

ideal self- the person were want to be

51
Q

who stated importance of self concept in physiological health
-explain his idea

A

carl rogers

self concept needs to be realistic and aligned with our ideal self in order for personal growth
- closer they are the better our psychological well-being

created client centred therapy to help ppl with a lack of this in their childhood)

52
Q

define congruence

define incongruence

A
  • how closely matched the self concept is to the ideal self - when people are most motivated
  • when self actualisation is not possible due to the negative feelings from a large difference between ideal self and self concept is
53
Q

what are the two important needs, suggested by Rogers, that allow for good personal growth

A

• unconditional regard (love)

  • increases feelings of self worth
  • if conditions are put on love in childhood, the child will have psychological issues in the future
  • —–(e.g. “I will love you if…”)

• self concept and worth

  • viewing ourselves in congruence to our ideal self
  • developed during childhood through interactions with family, and later on friends and peers.
54
Q

therapy used to help improve congruence and positive self concepts

its aim

how is it done

A

•Rogers client-centred therapy

—-> aim is to reduce gap between idea self and self concept

  • done by addressing individuals individually, who experienced a lack of unconditional positive regard
  • he suggested that metal health problems stem from childhood
  • so aims to give client a unique form of positive regard to counter this

(the therapy is non-directive meaning the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions)

55
Q

strengths of humanistic approach

A

optimstic
-promote positive self image, everyone free to work to individual potential

rejects reductionism of behaviour
-holism (consider whole person)

56
Q

weaknesses of humanistic approach

A

culturally bias
-central ideas like individual freedom may apply to western individualist cultures, but not eastern collectivist cultures

limited application to real world
- only contributed to Rogerian counselling which is rarely used

57
Q

assumptions of psychodynamic approach

A
  • describes the different, the mostly unconscious, dynamics drives and instincts that direct human behaviour and experience
  • emphasise role of unconscious on behaviour
  • —> where our biological drives (dynamics) and instincts, that influence behaviour, are stored
  • —> contains repressed, disturbing memories, that can be accessed during dreams or ‘slips of the tongue’ (parapraxes)
  • believe childhood experience shapes personality, through fixations in PS stages
  • suggests importance of pre-conscious too (next card)
58
Q

What does preconscious mean

A

thoughts and memories, just out of the conscious mind, that could be accessed if desired

59
Q

Freud’s tripartite view of personality

A

ID- operates on pleasure principle

  • primitive part of personality with all unconscious drives and instincts
  • selfish, wants immediate gratification of its needs
  • innate
  • fully unconscious

EGO- operates on reality principle
mediates and reduces conflict between demands of id and superego
—-> through using defence mechanisms
- develops at age 2
- some aspects are conscious some unconscious

SUPER-EGO- operates on morality principle

  • individuals internalised sense of right and wrong
  • punishes ego with guilt for wrongdoing
  • develops at age 5, during phallic stage
  • represents the morals of the child’s same-gender parent
  • some aspects are conscious some unconscious
60
Q

Define defence mechanisms

Examples

A

unconscious, short term strategies that the Ego uses help manage and balance the conflicts of id and superego, to prevent us from being overwhelmed from temporary threats and trauma

Examples:

•repression- unconscious blocking of disturbing thoughts from entering conscious mind (abusive past affects future relationships)
- thoughts don’t go away and still influence behaviour

  • denial- refusal to accept some aspect of reality
  • displacement- direct thoughts on feelings to someone other than who they view as responsible (a substitute target)
61
Q

One pro
one con
of defence mechanisms

A

PRO
•help us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas

CON
•often involve distortion of reality, therefore seen as unhealthy and unstable.

62
Q

psychosexual stages

A

+oral (0-1 yrs)- focus of pleasure on mouth (biting, sucking). desire is mother’s breast

+anal (1-3 yrs)- focus of pleasure on anus. desire is to withhold and expel faeces

+phallic (3-6 yrs)- focus of pleasure is genital area.
•2 types
—–> oedipus complex- son wants to sleep w/ mum, fears dad will castrate him. so represses true feelings, identifies w/ dad and takes on his morals and gender role

—–> electra complex- daughter wants to sleep w/ her dad, hates her mum, over time desire for kids replaces it

+latency (6-12yrs)- early conflicts are repressed, no more conflicts to resolve

+genital (12+yrs) puberty occurs during this stage, sexual desire comes conscious

63
Q

result of unresolved conflict at each stage in the psychosexual stages

A

•any psychosexual stage unresolved leads to fixations where child brings these conflicts and behaviours at this stage to adult life

+oral- smoking, nail biting (oral fixation)

+anal- anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or expulsive (messy, thoughtless)

+phallic- narcissistic, possibly homosexual

+latency- none

+genital- difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

64
Q

way to remember the order of the psychosexual stages

A 
Old                   Oral
Age                  Anal
Pensioners      Phallic
Like                  Latency
Gin                   Genital
65
Q

strengths of psychodynamic approach

A

introduced psychotherapy
-psychoanalysis (such as dream analysis) attempted to treat mental disorders physiologically rather than physically

ability to explain human behaviour
-used to explain a wide range of phenomena (personality & moral development, abnormal behaviour and gender identity)

66
Q

weaknesses of psychodynamic approach

A

untestable
-can’t be falsified or disproved as subjective
occur at unconcious level making them difficult to test
based on one single study (Little Hans)

dismisses any possibility of free will affecting behaviour
-determined by unconscious conflicts formed in childhood

67
Q

not in advanced info

The 5 features you can use to compare between approaches

A 
Views on development 
Nature vs nurture
Reductionism
Determinism
Explaining and treating abnormality
68
Q

Define reductionism

A

Suggests that a behaviour needs to be broken down into small and simplified components in order to explain it effectively

69
Q

Define reductionism

A

Suggests that the reason for behaviour is the same in everyone and therefore we can predict outcomes of behaviour based on the internal or external cause

70
Q

Role of PNS

A

Transmit messages to and from the CNS

71
Q

What does the PNS divided

A

Autonomous nervous system (vital functions- breathing, digestion)

Somatic nervous system- (muscle movement and receives sensory responses

72
Q

Division of ANS

A

(autonomic nervous sytem)

Sympathetic- gets body ready for fight or flight by increasing heart and breathing rate

Parasympathetic- normal resting state
Returns body to normal state after fight or flight

73
Q

When a neuron is resting it has …

When a neuron is activated by a stimulus it has…

When a neuron produces action potential ….

A

Negative charge

Positively charged for a second causing action potential to be created

Causes an Electrical impulse to travel down the axon towards the End of the neuron

74
Q

not in advanced info

Process of fight or flight response

A

When a threat is seen, important parts of the brain send a signal to the they hypothalamus

Hypothalamus triggers sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system (from parasympathetic)

Stimulates adrenal gland

Gland releases hormone

75
Q

Physiological changes to the body in the sympathetic state (fight or flight)

A

increase heart rate, sweating, blood flow to muscles and slowed digestion, contraction of rectum, inhibits saliva production
dilates pupils

A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (21 decks)

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