PAPER 3 - Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is UNIVERSALITY ?
- apply to all people
- threatened by the concept of gender bias
What is BIAS ?
- prejudice for or against a person or group
- could be considered unfair
What is ANDROCENTRISM ?
- psychology has been male dominated
- psychologists were male
- theories tended to represent a male world view
- theories are unlikely to be universal
What is ALPHA BIAS ?
- assumes there is a difference between genders when there might not be
- artificially raises a gender’s status or undervalue a gender
What is BETA BIAS ?
- assumes there are no difference between genders when there might be
- assuming findings about men can be applied to women when they can’t
What are the STRENGTHS if gender bias ?
EQUALITY
- society can become more equal
- women have similar education and occupational opportunities
REFLEXIVITY
- allowed researchers to become aware of their own interpretations
- less likely for concrete generalisations
What is FREE WILL ?
- we choose our thoughts and behaviours
- influenced by biological and environmental factors
What is DETERMINISM ?
- no free will
- thoughts are pre-determined by internal / external factors
- behaviour is predictable
What is HARD DETERMINISM ?
- extreme form
- no room for free will
- behaviour has specific cause
- not responsible for our actions
What is SOFT DETERMINISM ?
- allows some free will
- some conscious mental control
- influencing forces
- freedom to detract
What is BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM ?
- biological factors
- not able to see or control
e. g. neurotransmitters / hormones
What is ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM ?
- determined by past experiences
- external influences
e. g. social learning
What is PSYCHIC DETERMINISM ?
- determined by unconscious forces
- early childhood
e. g. psychosexual stages
What are the arguments FOR free will ?
FACE VALIDITY
- everyday life
- legal system = responsible for their behaviour
- calm in society
PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS
- high locus of control
- mentally healthy
- believing we have free will
What are the arguments AGAINST free will ?
CULTURALLY RELATIVE
- suited to individualistic cultures
- culturally bias
- ethnocentric
RESEARCH EVIDENCE
- motor area before conscious awareness
- prefrontal cortex active 10 seconds before pp aware of their decision
What are the arguments FOR determinism ?
MENTAL ILLNESS
- behaviours are not desired e.g. suicide
- medication can remove symptoms
INTERVENTIONS
- intervene to prevent certain behaviours
- brain activity in murderers
- provide support
What are the arguments AGAINST determinism ?
CONCORDANCE RATES
- biological determinism
- MZ twins for mental illness never 100%
- must be more complex than suggested
SOCIALLY SENSITIVE
- criminal behaviour can never be punished
- focus on medication and ignore influencing factors
- self-fulfilling prophecy
What is NATURE ?
- the influences of our genes
- determined by pre-natal environment
What is NURTURE ?
- the influences of our interactions
- we are born as a blank slate
What are GENETICS ?
- heredity
- our genetic makeup influences our behaviour
What is EVOLUTIONARY ?
- heredity
- characteristics which have supported survival are now innate within us and passed down due to natural selection
What is the LEARNING THEORY ?
- environment
- behaviour is learnt via experiences e.g. conditioning
What is the INTERACTIONIST APPROACH ?
- interaction between nature and nurture
What is DIATHESIS STRESS ?
mental illness occurs due to interaction between the BIOLOGICAL (diathesis) and the ENVIRONMENT (stress) INFLUENCES
What is a PASSIVE RELATIONSHIP ?
INTERACTIONIST APPROACH
- parental gene affects the way the parent treats their child
Give an example of a PASSIVE RELATIONSHIP
parents who are good at golf might take their child to a gold course and encourage them to play
What is a ACTIVE RELATIONSHIP ?
INTERACTIONIST APPROACH
- child’s genetic make-up actively affects the environment
Give an example of an ACTIVE RELATIONSHIP
child has good hand-eye coordination so spends time at the golf course
What is a REACTIVE RELATIONSHIP ?
INTERACTIONIST APPROACH
- child’s genetic make-up leads to particular response from others
Give an example of a REACTIVE RELATIONSHIP
parent notices good hand-eye coordination and encourages them to play golf
What are the STRENGTHS of the nature / nurture debate ?
NURTURE CAN AFFECT NATURE
- macguire - taxi’s hippocampus
- experience changed plasticity
NATURE CAN AFFECT NURTURE
- people create their own environment
- select what is appropriate for their ‘nature’
- shapes their behaviour and reinforces tendencies
EPIGENETICS
- genes can be switches ‘on / off’
- individual overeats and becomes obese = change in genetic activity = epigenetic marker = passed to offspring
What is HOLISM ?
- focuses on the system as a whole
- cannot predict how the whole system will work by looking at individual components
What is REDUCTIONISM ?
- breaks down complex phenomena into more simple components
- better understood at a simpler level
What are the 3 levels of explanation in psychology - according to reductionism ?
highest level
middle level
lowest level
What is the HIGHEST LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ?
REDUCTIONISM
- social and cultural explanations of behaviour
- broad / social
Give an example of the HIGHEST LEVEL when concerning MEMORY
CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS can affect what we remember
What is the MIDDLE LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ?
REDUCTIONISM
- psychological explanation of behaviour
- focuses on individual
Give an example of the MIDDLE LEVEL when concerning MEMORY
episodic memory from OUR LIVES are remembered because they are personal
What is the LOWEST LEVEL as an explanation of psychology ?
REDUCTIONISM
- biological explanation of behaviour
- internal factors
Give an example of the LOWEST LEVEL when concerning MEMORY
activity in the AREAS OF THE BRAIN where memories are stored (hippocampus) and the NEUROTRANSMITTERS involved in making memories (acetylecholine)
What is BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM ?
- reduces behaviour down to a PHYSICAL LEVEL
- the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, genetics and hormones
What is ENVIRONMENTAL (STIMULUS-RESPONSE) REDUCTIONISM ?
- behaviour can be reduced to a SIMPLE RELATIONSHIP between BEHAVIOUR and EVENTS in the environment
Give an example of BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM
depression
- low levels of serotonin
- drugs can increase serotonin = reduced depression
Give an example of ENVIRONMENTAL REDUCTIONISM
phobias
- learnt via an association between an UCS and NS
What are the arguments FOR reductionism ?
MEASURING VARIABLES
- focuses on one factor
- easier to design research and control variables
- validity / reliability
- cause and effect
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- interventions
- SSRI’s to treat OCD
- fewer patients being institutionalised
What are the arguments AGAINST reductionism ?
MISSES COMPLEXITY OF BEHAVIOUR
- environmental reductionism researched on animals
- we are not scaled up versions of animals as we are affected by SOCIAL FACTORS and EMOTIONS
CONTEXT OF BEHAVIOUR
- meaning of behaviour and potential causes
- SSRI’s are not long term solution
- time and money wasted
What are the arguments FOR holism ?
ACCOUNTS FOR SOCIAL INFLUENCES
- behaviour affected by interactions with others
- conformity to social roles
- more accurate understanding of behaviour
ACCOUNTS FOR COGNITIVE INFLUENCES
- schemas in childhood have lead to depression
- looks at the individual as a whole
- may be more accurate
What are the arguments AGAINST holism ?
HARD TO TEST
- difficult to isolate variables
- hard to generalise findings
- lack of evidence for science community
HARD TO PRACTICALLY APPLY
- considers all factors so hard to suggest how to change the behaviour
- unsure which factor to tackle first
What is IDIOGRAPHIC ?
- focuses on UNIQUE INDIVIDUALS
- qualitative data
- not compared to larger group
Give examples of IDIOGRAPHIC METHODS
- case studies
- unstructured interviews
- thematic analysis
What is NOMOTHETIC ?
- LARGE NUMBER of people
- quantitative data
- generalisations
Give examples of NOMOTHETIC METHODS
- experiments
What are the arguments FOR idiographic ?
CAN MAKE PREDICTIONS
- detailed observation of few individuals = generalisations
- insight into cause and effect
HELP DEVELOP NOMOTHETIC APPROACH
- millon and davis
- start with nomothetic and then focus on idiographic
- more accurate
What are the arguments AGAINST idiographic ?
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS DIFFICULT
- does not make comparisons
- no baseline
- cannot benefit everyday life
LACK OF SCIENTIFIC RIGOUR
- qual. data = subjective
- self-reports = social desirability
- bias
What are the arguments FOR nomothetic ?
SCIENTIFIC
- controlled methodology
- cause and effect
- high validity
- scientific credibility
PREDICTIONS
- mental illness
- time consuming for personal therapies
- design of drugs
What are the arguments AGAINST nomothetic ?
DOES NOT TELL US WHY
- focuses on statistical significance
- doesn’t give full picture
HUMANS ARE COMPLEX
- law / theories won’t apple to all people
- medication only works for 2/3 of patients
What are ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS ?
IMPACTS the findings may have on SOCIETY
Give an example of ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS
how the finding may influence our perception of a particular social group
What is SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH ?
- potential social implications
e. g. genetic explanations for aggressive behaviour - attract media attention
What are the potential problems of the RESEARCH QUESTION ?
- could be damaging to a certain group e.g. ‘are there racial differences in IQ?’
What does the researcher need to consider with their RESEARCH QUESTION ?
IMPLICATIONS
- wider effect
- should not suggest discrimination
SCIENTIFIC FREEDOM
- engage in research but not harm pps or social groups
What does the researcher need to consider with their INTERPRETATIONS and APPLICATIONS of their findings ?
VALIDITY
- poor methodology = inaccurate findings = false representation of social group
PUBLIC POLICY
- what the research might be used for
- avoid wrong purpose
What are some of overcoming ethical issues ?
- briefing / debriefing
- care in publication
- consider who is funding research
- treat pps well
What are the arguments FOR social sensitive research ?
NECESSARY
- promote greater sensitivity and understanding
- reduce prejudice
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- potential to make changes in society
- attachment types
- positive economic impacts
What are the arguments AGAINST social sensitive research ?
INADEQUACY OF CURRENT GUIDELINES
- (currently) do not need to consider how the research will be used
- needs reconsideration especially with technological advances
SOCIAL CONTROL
- findings may reinforce current stereotypes
PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE LIMITATIONS
- researcher should recognise their own limitations
- can never state absolute truth
- should not impose a professional view
- cannot buffer against ethical implications
