Paper 2) Urban Environments Flashcards
Urbanization definition
An increased concentration of people in urban areas
Urban growth definition
The physical expansion of cities (economic or demographic - the statistical characteristics of human populations)
Urban definition
An area with a large concentration of people in a town or a city. The opposite to rural.
Where is the majority of contemporary urbanisation happening?
-Africa and Asia
-taking place in large towns and small cities
How many years did it take to achieve the first one billion urban dwellers and second billion urban dwellers?
-10,000 years - 1 billion
-25 years - 2 billion
-shows rapid urbanisation
Suburbanisation definition
The outward spread of the urban area, often at lower densities compared with the older parts of a town or city
Counter-urbanisation definition
The movement of people and employment from major cities to smaller cities and towns
Agglomeration definition
The concentration of people and economic activities at favourable locations, such as river crossing points
Characteristics of CBD
-big shopping complex
-offices
-major transport links
-lack of green space
Characteristics of the inner city
-dense, terraced house
-grid iron road layout
-industrial estates
-lack of open space
Characteristics of the inner suburbs
-low density housing
-semi detached housing
-large gardens
-cul-de-sacs
Characteristics of the outer suburbs
-small gardens
-open spaces
-parks and golf courses
What about suburbs that appeal to new residents
-more space
-improvements in transport allows people to move easily between new suburbs town centers
-declines in the quality of the residential environment near the centre
Causes of counter urbanisation - push factors
-noise pollution
-higher crime rates
-overcrowding
-parking shortages
-traffic congestion
-old housing
Causes of counter urbanisation - pull factors
-larger houses with gardens
-pleasant scenery and countryside
-out of town shopping malls
-lower crime rates
-safer for children
-less pollution
Social impacts of counter urbanisation
-more shops and services as more number of people
–maybe not: incomers may be elderly/ affluent - send children to prestigious schools elsewhere
–might change services: post office/ pubs –> boutiques/ restaurants
-culture clash - incomers may object to long-established everyday aspects of country life (fox-hunting)/ controversial land-use practices of local farmers (excessive use of nitrates, hedge-row removal)
-community disintegration - children of established residents cannot afford to buy a home. Over time, out-migration of original resident’s children
-historical ‘authenticity’ can be lost if too many changes
Environmental impacts of counter urbanisation
-urban city centres may decline in popularity as people move away, lead to unemployment, decline
-the demand for housing has grown in many villages and small towns, growth of new estates - House prices have risen due to the increase in demand
-increased pressure on greenfield land as the rural-urban fringe is blurred
-Congestion - infrastructure cannot cope with the increased demand. Difficulties for farmers moving slower vehicles on country roads and increase air pollution.
Political impacts of counter urbanisation
-Population decline in the city reduces council tax revenue, so there are less funds available for local services which may decline in quality e.g. schools, healthcare, waste collection, leisure facilities.
-Hostility and vandalism - The older rural community may even object to newcomers in an openly hostile manner
Factors resulting in high rates of urbanisation in lower and emerging countries
-high natural increase - the birth rate far exceeds the death rate
-push and pull factors - leading to high rates of rural-urban migration
-most new economic development in these areas is concentrated in the big cities
-Economies of Scale - as there are less smaller cities, megacities can save money as everything is closer together. They save on transport and communication between people and businesses
Reasons to leave the countryside - push factors
-food shortage and people cannot be supported in this area
-government investment is lacking in this area. There are few services
-a natural disaster has taken place, e.g. floods in Bangladesh
-forced migrations
-farmers in the local area mechanise their farms. There is now no need to employ as many farm labourers
-plots of land are divided up amongst children making them too small to farm
-a crop failure due to overgrazing, e.g. desertification in Nigeria
Reasons to move to the city/ urban areas - pull factors
-there is a hope for improved housing, better jobs and more reliable food supply
-government investment tends to be in the cities
-these are more services, e.g. schools, hospitals
-better quality of life
The Clark Fisher model
-draw it
Urbanisation pathway model
-draw it
Photochemical smog definition
A mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities.
Congestion definition
A condition on transport that is characterised by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicle queueing.
Shanty towns
A squalid and overcrowded urban street or district inhabited by very poor people
Problems of rapid urbanisation
HEHATES
-Housing - more demand than supply
-Education - lack of schools
-Health - aren’t enough doctors and hospitals
-Access to water and electricity
-Traffic congestion and transport - traffic systems are overcrowded, high pollution
-Employment - people have to join informal sector
-Social problems - increase in crime
Rapid urbanisation - slums
-slums are not linked to main sewage networks
-there is waste near people
-diseases can spread and causes people to fall sick
-slums are overcrowded, diseases will also spread faster
-this goes into the water supply which contaminates it
-often have no mains electricity and residents illegally trap into the network so it is dangerous and might cause fires
Rapid urbanisation - urban development
Can magnify the risks of flash flooding so more infrastructure is damaged and destroyed
Rapid urbanisation - informal sector
-The majority of slum dwellers work in the informal sector (e.g. recycling industry)
-they have less income and it is more unstable
Rapid urbanisation - congestion
As cities grow, so do the number of cars on the road as many people commute to work
-there is a lot of traffic in the city
-This increases pollution and people will have respiratory problems
Rapid urbanisation - crime rates
-Inequality between communities and conflicts over resources can lead to increased crime
-there is more insecurity and people will feel unsafe.
Advantages of bottom up development
-doesn’t cost the government money, projects are cheap
-Sense of community - families stay in their own areas and provide mutual support
-Slum dwellers have a say in what improvements are made
-able to remain in their own home whilst the improvements are made - less disruption to their lives.
Disadvantages of bottom up development
-Still a risk that the government may knock the slum down in the future, money invested in risk
-Only works on a small-scale
-Overall improvement to standard of living and quality of life will take a long time
Advantages of top down development
-Investment comes from either the government or NGOs-
housing is permanent and legal.
-Large-scale redevelopment is quick - more people are helped, extensive improvements
-More access to services - hospitals and schools
-less squalid conditions, reliable electricity and water supplies
Disadvantages of top down development
-Loss of community spirit due to poorly designed housing blocks - less mutual support
-People have to move to new schools, new jobs and register for new medical facilities - significant impact on their lives
-Some people have to move into temporary accommodation whilst their new housing block is being developed and if development stalls they will be stuck in limbo.
Mumbai sustainable management - waste disposal
-The Sana Ullah compound in Dharavi is the biggest area of plastic recycling in Mumbai
-The Gorai Garbage site closure project - in 2007, the Gorai landfill site was 20-hectures and 27m deeps. Toxic fumes and runoff as polluting the local water supply. The government made a plan to reshape it into a hill, lined with material to prevent leaching and planted with grass to create a park. Methane capture technology has also been used to generate electricity cheaply for local residents.
-120,000 rag pickers take anything reusable they find to Dharavi and sell their waste by the kilo to hundreds of small recycling plants
-estimated that 80% of the Mumbai’s solid waste is recycled into usable materials
-15,000 factories dedicated to recycling and sorting Mumbai’s waste
Mumbai challenges - waste disposal
-city produces over 10,000 metric tonnes of solid waste every day
-in Dharavi, even though the recycling work is effective, its hazardous and unregulated. Workers will sift through piles of festering rubbish with no safety equipment in extreme heat
-small cuts and wounds quickly become infected as workers sift through medical waste and other biohazardous substances
Mumbai challenges - transport, congestion, pollution
-dangerous levels of Nitrous Oxides and particulate matter
-hazardous to human health and can cause asthma
-more than 22 million vehicles registered in Mumbai - noise, air pollution, traffic jams
-rail transport is overcrowded, only two main motorways in and to the city
Mumbai sustainable management - traffic congestion, air pollution
-The Mumbai monorail - the government decided in 2005 that a mono-rail would be a good solution to traffic congestion
Pros:
-reduces the amount of traffic on the roads, making them safer
-constructed over built up areas without having to clear any roads/ land
-carries passengers quickly, easily moves around the landscape
-cheap
Cons:
-costly to build
-number of passengers lower than expected - only 15,000 each day
-mainly used by tourists due to its location away from the main city
Mumbai challenges - education
-over 200,000 street children in Mumbai that have dropped out of school
-police force them to move from any shelters they have created as some street children steal and take drugs
Mumbai sustainable management - education
-Hamara foundation
-creates social-work services for these children to help them get an education, improve their health, give them job skills
-between 2013-2014, 327 children were supported by the foundation
-foundation provides vocational training for 16-18 year olds in computing, mechanics, hospitality
Mumbai challenges - health
-government toilet blocks charged individual for use, too expensive for most families
-design for toilets are also very poor, without running water and no employees cleaning them
Mumbai sustainable management - health
-NGO called SPARC
-works with communities to build new toilet blocks that are connected to city sewers and water supplies
-locals help to construct the toilet block and families can purchase monthly permits for 25 rupees, which is much cheaper than the government owned
-in 5 years, 800 toilet blocks each with 8 toilets have been created
Mumbai challenges - economy
-economic growth is slowing
-Mumbai has a huge informal economy (67%)
-the government receives less money as the workforce doesn’t pay full taxes
-low economic growth means less money goes towards those areas of the city that need improvement, in housing, the environment, transport
Standard of living definition
The ability to access services and goods. This includes basics such as food and water, clothes, housing and personal mobility.
Globalization definition
Term used to describe how trade and technology have made the world into a more connected and interdependent place.
Deindustrialization definition
When a country’s proportion working in the secondary sector starts to decline and the proportion working in the tertiary sector grows.
Segregation definition
Different people/groups/cultures forced apart and/or living in divided communities for some reason.
Quality of life
The extent to which people’s needs and desires (social, psychological or physical) are met.
UK challenges - segregation
-Many non-British people live nearer the center of London as they come for job oppurtunities, while white British people live on the outskirts
-People like to stay in a place in which the culture is accustomed to them, so they live close to people like themselves.
London’s challenges - air pollution and congestion
-London has the worst congestion in Britain with just under 35% of the capital’s roads regularly suffering jams, despite the congestion charge
-nitrogen dioxide - can cause microscopic particles that go into your blood stream and cause lung cancer and respiratory issues
London’s management strategies - congestion
Congestion charges:
-60,000 fewer vehicles enter the zones but congestion hasn’t improved
-congestion charge hasn’t done much to reduce congestion
-if it wasn’t there, the congestion would be much more
-brings in lots of extra revenue (1.3 billion pounds)
-950 million spent on public transport
Cycle superhighways:
-encourage cyclist to use certain routes, sometimes confusing
-segregated from the road so cyclists feel safe
London’s challenges - fatbergs
-1.2 million tonnes of raw sewage has been dumped into the river Thames because the Victorian sewers can’t cope
-fatbergs - mass of waste matter in a sewer system formed by the combination of flushed non-biodegradable solids, such as wet wipes and fats
London management strategies - fatbergs
-London super sewer
-25km long
Land uses of the rural-urban fridge
-housing estates - land is cheaper, urbanization increasing
-airports - large amount of space
-warehouse/ industrial estates
-retail parks
-theme parks
Brownfield site definition
Previously developed land that is no longer being used
Greenfield site definition
Land that has never been built upon
Greenbelt definition
Policy and land-use zone designation used in land-use planning to retain areas of undeveloped, agricultural land that are neighboring urban areas
Greenfield site advantages
-Cheaper and house construction rate is faster as there is no existing infrastructure needed to take down
-Healthier environment
Greenfield site disadvantages
-Valuable farm land lost
-Attractive scenery lost
-Wildlife, habitats lost
-Development causes noise pollution
-Encourages urban sprawl
-increases the amount of impermeable land which increases flood risk
Brownfield site advantages
-Reduces the loss of countryside that might otherwise have been taken for building
-Helps revive old disused urban areas
-Services such as water, electricity, sewage already in place (however, it might be bad as well as it interferes with the new building design)
Brownfield site disadvantages
-More expensive as old buildings have to be cleared
-Often surrounded by rundown areas - doesn’t appeal to more wealthy people
-Higher levels of pollution
Greenbelt functions
- Check the sprawl (spreading) of cities like London and Birmingham
- To protect the surrounding countryside from further development
- To prevent neighbouring cities from merging into each other.
Advantages of greenbelt land
-They help prevent urban sprawl and give rural people easy access to natural spaces
-protect the environment
Disadvantages of greenbelt land
-a lot of the UK’s greenbelt land is farmland, which although it is helpful, farms generate a lot of greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide and methane
-Around two-thirds of greenbelt land in the UK are farms
-Greenbelts are usually also privately owned, as they are farms. This means that the public can’t even enter without trespassing, which defeats the purpose of access to green spaces
-Only 9% of greenbelt land in the UK is designates as areas of natural beauty.
