paper 2 - C - research methods Flashcards
whats the definition of hypothesis?
an educated guess
whats the definition of an aim?
the purpose of the research
= and a precise testable statement of the relationship between two variable
whats a directional hypothesis?
states what clear differences there are between conditions
=one tailed
whats non-directional hypothesis?
states that there is a difference between groups / conditions doesn’t say results
whats an alternate hypothesis?
when there is a relationship between two variables not due to chance
whats a null hypothesis?
no relationship between variables due to chance/aren’t significant
whats operationalising the variables?
defining your variables
whats an independent variable?
a variable that can be changed by researcher
whats a dependent variable?
data that is measured
whats internal validity?
whether the effects of observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the IV and not another factor
what are extraneous variables?
only the independent variable should influence the dependent variable any other factors that do are extraneous variables
= when possible are identified at the start of the experiment
what are participant variables?
differences between participants that may impact results
what are situational variables?
features of the experimental situation that may affect the results
whats a cofounding variable?
effects the DV but also relates to the IV
what are demand characteristics?
when there may be clues in the experiment which may help the participant figure out the aim of the research and change their behaviour
what are investigator effects?
when the behaviour of the investigator may affect participants and consequently impact the DV
what randomisation in experiments and why is it used?
- using chance wherever possible to reduce the researchers influence
what is a standardised experiment?
keeping everything the same for all participants , to make sure they all have the same experience
eg. the same conditions
=lighting
=noise
=heat
=same time of day
whats the definition of an experimental design?
refers to the way participants are used in experiments / participants arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions
what are the three experimental method designs?
- independent group design
2.repeated measure design
3.matched pairs design
whats an independent group experiment?
-there are two separate groups of participants that experience two different conditions
-performance of two groups are compared
whats a repeated measures experiment?
-all participants experience both conditions
-both pieces of data compared
whats a matched pairs experiment?
-participants matched up by on variable eg. age, IQ,
-then one would be put in condition one and the other in condition 2
-
Evaluation on independent group experiments?
strengths
=order effects aren’t a problem but they are in repeated measures design this could be boredom or fatigue but as they are only in one condition they arent a problem
=less likely to guess the aim
weaknesses
=less economical= two sets of participants are needed
Evaluation of repeated measures experiments?
strengths
=fewer participants are needed
=any differences in conditions are due to changes in the IV and not participants variables
weaknesses
=order effects can occur as they take part in all conditions= their performance in the second task may worsen as they’re bored
=more likely to work out the aim
Evaluation of matched pairs experiments?
strengths
=only take part in one condition so order effects are decreased
weaknesses
=pairs can never be matched perfectly there will always be differences among the pair
=matching can be time-consuming and costly
whats counterbalancing and what does it help with in experiments?
its used to deal with order effects
= the sample is spilt in 1/2
=one half completes condition in one order
=other completes it in reverse
lab experiments?
-conducted in controlled environments
-not always in a lab
Evaluation of lab experiments?
strengths
=high control over extraneous variables this means it has a higher internal validity
=easily replicable as of controlled variables= this means it has higher validity
weaknesses
=lacks generalisability it can be artificial as its not in an everyday environment lowers external validity
whats a field experiment?
the IV is manipulated in a natural everyday setting
Evaluation of field experiments?
strengths
=has high mundane realism as the environment is more natural, this can produce more valid behaviour
weaknesses
=ethical issues participants are unaware they are being studied so cannot consent
what is a natural experiment?
researchers take advantage of pre-existing variables - variables change even if researcher was not interested
Evaluation of a natural experiment?
strength
-has high external validity as they study real life-issues
weaknesses
–cannot be generalised
what is a quasi-experiment?
iv based on existing differences between people so nobody has manipulated the variable
evaluation of quasi-experiment?
strength
-controlled conditions so have the same strengths as lab experiments
weakness
-may have co-founding variables as participants are randomly allocated
definition of population?
large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying
definition of target sample?
-a subset of the general population
what are sampling techniques used for?
-they are used to select samples that aim to be representative so can be generalised
what is random sampling?
- a list of all target population is obtained
2.all names given a number
3.numbers generated in a lottery method
4.numbers are randomly chosen
Evaluation of random sampling?
strength
-researchers have no influence on who is picked so cannot be bias and choose someone they think will support the hypothesis
weaknesses
-time consuming
-selected participants may refuse to take part
whats a systematic sample?
- when every nth person of a population gets chosen
-this reduces bias
systematic sample evaluation?
strength- reduces bias
strength= fairly representative
what is stratified samples?
- researcher identifies subgroups that make up the proportion
2.populations needed to be representative are worked out
3.then participants are worked out using random sampling
evaluation on stratified sample?
strength- avoids research bias
-findings can be generalised
weakness- complete representation isn’t possible
whats an opportunity sample?
this is when the researcher chooses anyone available to be in their study
Evaluation of opportunity sample?
strength
-convenient
-saves time
-less costly
weaknesses
-researcher can be bias in choosing
whats a volunteer sample?
participants select themselves to be in the sample
evaluation of volunteer sample?
strength
-less time consuming
-less costly
weakness
-may attract similar people
why do ethical issues arise?
conflict between participants rights and the researchers needs to gain findings
-causes damage to participants health and wellbeing
what does informed consent involve?
making participants aware of the aim of research, the procedure and their rights and what their data will be used for
How is informed consent dealt with in research?
- participants given a consent form
2.if under 16 need consent off parents
what does deception involve?
- deliberately withholding info from a participant
-this means participants cannot say they have given informed consent
-it can be justified if the participant does not gain stress from it
how is deception dealt with?
at the end of an investigation participants should be given a full debrief
-they are also told what their data is being used for and can withhold any they want to
what does protection from harm involve?
participants shouldn’t be placed in anymore risk than they are in their daily lives
-they should be reminded they can withdraw
how is protection from harm dealt with?
-BPS code of ethics
-includes a set of ethical guidelines
-wont go to prison if they dont follow it
what is involved in confidentiality and privacy?
-participants have the right to control info about themselves
-confidentiality should also be protected by the data protection act
how is dealing with confidentiality dealt with?
participants should be related to using numbers or letters
whats a pilot study?
a small scale trial run off the actual investigation
how do pilot studies help observable studies?
checks coding systems
identifies any potential issues saving time and money
whats a single blind procedure?
participant isnt told the aim
participant isnt told what condition they’re in or if there is another condition
what are control groups used for?
used for comparison
whats a double blind procedure?
neither the participant or researcher knows the aim
eg in drug trials
what does observation allow psychologists to do?
allows researchers to see how participants act without asking them
allow behaviours to be observed in a controlled setting
what are naturalistic observations?
takes place in the setting the behaviour would normally occur
what are controlled observations?
having some control over variables
evaluation of naturalistic observations?
-they have a high external validity
=findings can be generalised to daily life
-lack of control causes replication to be difficult
what is covert observations?
participant is unaware they are apart of the study and are observed in secret
-to be ethical behaviour should be in public
what is over observations?
participants know they are being observed and have given informed consent
evaluation of covert observations?
strength= participants dont know they are being watched so behaviour is more natural= high validity
weakness= ethics may be questioned as they haven’t given consent
evaluation of overt observations?
strength- ethically acceptable as participants have given consent
weakness- they know theyre being observed so may change behaviour
what is participant observation?
when the researcher becomes part of the group they are researching
what is non participant observation?
researcher remains seperate from the group theyre observing
evaluation of participant observation?
has an increased validity
researcher may lose objectivity as they may start to identify with the people they’re studying
evaluation of non-participant observation?
less danger on losing objectivity
may not have the insight that they would iof in the investigation
what is unstructured observation?
= writing everything down you see
=produces observations rich in detail
=used with small amount of participants
whats a structured observation?
=allows researchers to quantity their observations using a list of behaviours
Evaluation of structured and unstructured observation?
structured
=allows data to be recorded easier
=comparing data is more straightforward
unstructured
=harder to record and analyse data
=rich in data
=can have observer bias as they may only write down certain behaviours
what are behavioural categories?
=behaviours broken down into categories
=behaviours are measurable
=researcher should list all behaviours that the participant may present
Evaluation of behavioural categories?
weakness- categories may not precise enough
weakness- all behaviours may not be in the list
whats event sampling?
- counting how many times a behaviour occurs in a group
whats time sampling?
recording behaviours in a pre planned time frame
evaluation of time and event sampling?
event sampling is good as if it happens infrequently it could be missed in time sampling
time sampling allows observations to be reduced
what are questionnaires?
they are pre-set list of questions that participants respond to
what do questionnaires assess?
they assess thoughts and feelings
whats an open question in a questionnaire?
=doesnt have a fixed range of answers
=responses how the participants wish
=produces qualitative data hard to analyse
whats a closed question in a questionnaire?
=fixed ways of responding
=easy to analyse
=lacks data and detail
Evaluation on questionnaires?
Strengths
-cost effective
-gather data quickly
weaknesses
-answers may not always be truthful
-response bias
whats a structured interview?
-pre determined questions asked in a fixed order
whats an unstructured interview?
-no set questions
-certain topic is a main focus
whats a semi-structured interview?
-set of questions
-interviewed can add questions if they need to
evaluation of interviews?
structured
=easy to replicate
unstructured
=not straight forward to analyse data
whats a likert scale?
a scale that participants use to rate how much they agree with a statement normally out of 5
what are rating scales?
rating their strength of feeling about a topic
whats a fixed choice option?
items include a list of options and have to tick what applies to you
what things are needed when designing a questionnaire?
1.rating scale
2. fixed choice options
3/ likert scale
what does writing good questions include?
- no overuse of jargon
2.no leading questions
meaning of association in correlation?
-a measure of the extent to which two variables are related
what is the difference between experiments and correlation?
experiments look at cause and effect relationship and correlation looks at just the relationship
definition of positive correlation?
as one variable increases so does the other variable
definition of negative correlation?
as one variable increases the other decreases
definition of zero correlation?
no relationships between the variables
what are correlation coefficients?
used to describe the strength of the correlation
what are the rules of corelation coefficient?
- +1.0 is a positive correlation
- -1.0 is a negative correlation
- below +/- 0.5 its weak above +/- 0.5 its strong
Evaluation of correlation?
Strength
-can be used when unethical/impractical to manipulate variables
-procedure can be replicated
weakness
- cannot demonstrate
-often misunderstood by society leading to misunderstanding
what’s qualitive data?
the data is expressed in words and no stats
whats quantative data?
numerical data measured in stats
examples of qualitative data?
interviews
open ended questions
case studies
examples of quantative data?
questionnaire
rating scales
lab experiments
Evaluation of quantative and qualitative data?
qualitative
weakness
-costly and time consuming
strength
-provides contextual data to explain complex issues by explaining the why and how
quantitative
weakness
=dont take place in natural settings
strength
=rapid analysis
whats the definition of primary data? and examples?
data that has been collected by the researcher
=questionnaire
=interview
definition of secondary data? and examples?
data collected by someone who isnt conducting the research
=journal articles
=books
=websites
Evaluation of primary data?
strength
=data collection can be designed to fit the hypothesis
weakness
=time consuming and takes a lot of planning and preparation
Evaluation of secondary data?
strength
=easy to access so minimal effort
=no need to do primary data if experiment already exists
weakness
=data may be out-dated
definition of meta-analysis?
-type of secondary data
-researcher analyses different pieces of research on a certain topic
what are measures of central tendency?
-mode
-mean
-median
what are measures of dispersion?
-range
-standard deviation
what is nominal data?
=data put into categories measured frequently
=often in pie charts
=most basic level of measurement
=only says how many participants picked each option
whats ordinal data?
=a numerical value, based on ranks/orders
=data can be subjective
=always used in questionnaires
whats interval data?
-units of equal measurements used
=data is objective
=most complex level of measurement
definition of the mean?
-adding up all the scores and dividing by how many there are
definition of the range?
taking away the smallest number from the largest
definition of the mode?
how frequently a number appears
definition of median?
the middle number in a list of numbers
definition of standard deviation?
a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution from the mean
definition of a low standard deviation?
-data tightly clustered by the mean= all participants responded fairly similar
definition of high standard deviation?
-data that has a wide spread of data values
=not all participants responded in the same way
evaluation of standard deviation?
strength
=most precise measure of dispersion
=looks at all data unlike the range
weakness
=time consuming to calculate
evaluation of the range?
strength
=easy to calculate
=not time consuming
weakness
=only takes into account the 2 most extreme values= unrepresentative
=impacted by outliers
evaluation of the mode?
strength
=less prone to desertion by extreme values
=makes more sense than othert measures
weakness
-can have more than one mode
-doesnt use all data
evaluation of mean?
evaluation
strength
=includes all data = representative
weakness
=affected
evaluation of median?
strength
=not impacted by anomalies
=easy to identify
=easy to calculate
weakness
=not all data included
whats a histogram and what data is it used for?
-interval data
-continuous data
-columns touch
-scores on x-axis
-height of column= frequency
whats a bar chart and what data is it used for?
-nominal data
-discrete data
-columns dont touch
-data in categories
what a scattergraph and what data is it used for?
-ordinal
-correlational data
-measures relationships between variables
-pattern=correlation
whats a line graph and what data is it used for?
continuous data
shows change over time
Iv on x-axis and dv on y axis
what is normal distribution of a graph?
- it is displayed as a curve which is symmetrical on both sides
-the mean mode and median are all at the mid point
what is a positive skew graph?
-most of the distribution is to the left of the graph
=the mode is at the highest peak then the median then the mean
what is a negative skew graph?
-more distributed to the right of the graph
-mode at the highest then median then mean at the lowest point
