Paper 1 - B - memory Flashcards
who researched the study for capacity of the STM?
Jacob Millers
who researched the study for duration of the STM?
Petersons and Petersons
who researched the study for encoding of the STM
Baddeley
What did Alan Baddeley do and when? (relating to encoding of the stm)
1966
1. He gave different lists of words to 4 groups to remember
2.They either had them acoustically similar or dissimilar or semantically similar or dissimilar
3.Participants were asked to recall words in the right order immediately after hearing them (STM)
4.Participants were also asked to recall words after 20 mins (LTM)
Capacity in the LTM is …..
unlimited
duration in the LTM is ….
permanent
duration in the STM is…
limited
encoding in the STM is…
mainly acoustic
encoding in the LTM is…
semantic
what’s coding?
the process of converting info between different forms
research study for duration in the LTM?
Bahrick et al
research study for encoding in the LTM?
Baddeley
capacity in the STM is…
limited
What are the strengths of Bahricks study ? (duration of ltm)
His study had HIGH EXTERNAL VALIDITY ( applies in the outside world). It has high external validity as the info used was meaningful to the participants.
What are the weaknesses of Bahricks study?
Hard to control all variables
- some participants ,ay still be in contact with high school classmates and others may not be.
What did Harry Bahrick do and when?
(duration of LTM)
1975
-studied 392 american partcipants ahed 17-74
-highschool yearbooks taken off participants
-They had their recall tested by two ways
1. photo recognition of 50 photos some from their yearbook
2. free recall of all graduating classmates
conclusion of bahricks study? (duration of LTM)
LTM may last up to a lifetime
What are the findings of Harry Bahrick? (duration of LTM)
- participants tested after 15yrs of graduating were 90% accurate in photo recognition
- Participants after 48 yrs of graduating recall was 70% for photo recognition
- 60% accurate after 15 yrs for free recall
4.free recall was 30% accurate after 45yrs
limitations of Petersons and Petersons study?
- the stimulus material was artficial ( had no meaning to them)
- it doesnt reflect everyday memory
- lacked external validity
findings of Petersons and Petersons?
after 3 seconds average recall is around 80%
after 18 seconds recall was around 3%
Petersons and Petersons conclusion?
What did Petersons and Petersons do? and when?
1959
1. tested 24 students in 8 trials
2. each student was given a constant syllable ( eg, YCG)
3.They were then given a 3 digit number
4.they then had to count back from the 3 digits to stop them mentally rehearsing the constant syllable
5.On each trail they’d be made to stop counting back at different time intervals
limitations of George Millers study?
- he may of overestimated STM capacity
-nelson cowan reviewed the study and concluded the STM capacity is only 4 +/_ 1
whats duration ?
the length of time info can be held in the memory
what did george miller do and when ?
1956
He observed everyday practice noticed things came in 7’s ( 7 days in a week and the 7 deadly sins).
He thought the STM capacity was 7 items +/- 1
He realised people can recall around 5 words and 5 letters easily by chunking
strengths of Joseph Jacobs study?
It has been replaced
Weaknesses of Joseph Jacobs study?
- it was conducted a long time ago
- normally a long time ago would lack adequate control
What did joseph jacobs do and when?
1887
1. he researched capacity of the STM he figured this out by digit span
2. participants are read 4 digits and if they recall them right theyd be read 5 digits and have to recall them
3. stop when they recall them wrong
what are joseph jacobs findings?
most recalled 9 digits and 7 letters
coding in STM is….
normally acoustic
coding in LTM is…
normally semamtic
Strengths of Baddeleys study?
(coding of stm and ltm)
- it identified a clear difference between 2 memory stores
- STM beinf mainly acoustic
- LTM being mostly semantic both of these points are still right now
Limitations of Baddeleys study?
(coding of STM and LTM)
- used artifical stimuli rather than a stimuli that meant something to the participants
- only looks at 2 types of coding ( acoustic and semantically)
What are the three ways of coding information?
visually= pictures
acoustically= sounds
semantic= meanings
Whats the conclusion of Baddeleys study? (coding of STM and LTM)
information is coded acoustically in the STM
semantically in the LTM
Findings of Baddeleys study? (coding of STM and LTM)
When recalling with the STM they did worse with the acoustically similar words,. When recalling with the LTM they did worse with the semantically similar words.
Who thought of the multi-store model of memory?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
simplified description of the msm?
- described how information flows through the memory system
- suggests that the memory is made of three stores linked by processing
What are the three stores if the msm?
- sensory register
- stm
3.ltm
What stores are there in the sensory register of the msm?
- there is a store for each sense
2.there are two main stores =
-iconic memory= visual information= coded visually
-echoic- sounds= coded acoustically
duration of the sensory register in the msm?
- less than half a second
capacity of the sensory register in the msm?
high
how much information goes from the sensory register into the memory in the msm?
- very little
-but if information is paid attention to it will pass on
capacity of the stm in msm?
limited
duration of the stm in the msm?
30 seconds unless rehearsed
hows info coded in the stm in the msm?
acoustically
maintenance rehearsal in the msm?
- is when we repeat information to ourselves
2.information will stay in our stm if we rehearse it and can move to our ltm if rehearsed enough
capacity of ltm in msm?
unlimited
how does the ltm code msm?
semantically
whats retrieval in the ltm msm?
if we want to remember something in our ltm it has to be transferred through retrieval to our stm
strength of the msm?
- supporting research
=baddeley- we mix up words that sound similar when using stm byt when using ltm we mix up words with similar meanings , strength as it shows we code acoutsically in the stm and semantically in the stm
weaknesses of msm?
- theres more than one type of stm
=msm states theres only one type of stm
=shallice and warrrington studied a subject with amnesia he had poor digit memory but when reading them himself he had better memory= weakness as shows there may be more than one type of stm
-no different types of rehearsal
= msm believes the more you rehearse the better the memory
=craick and watson found this was wrong its the type of rehearsal that matters not the amount
-we have more than one type of ltm
tuiving believed what about the ltm? and why did he think this??
he believes theres three types of ltm=
1, episodic
2, semantic
3, procedural
He thought the msm was too simple about the ltm
procedural memory ?
- responsible for knowing how to do skills/actions
- doesnt need consciousness
semantic memory?
-contains knowledge of the world
-memories aren’t time-stamped
-less personal facts
episodic memory?
-recalls events from our lives
-complex memories as theyre timestamped
-takes conscious effort to recall
similarities between tuivings ltms?
- theyre all ltm
2.semantic and episodic both need consciousness - procedural and semantic are not timestamped
differences between tuivings ltms?
1, episodic is personal information while the others arent
2. episodic is the only time stamped
strengths of tuivings ltm?
clinical evidence =
-HM case study and clive wearing
= episodic memory didnt work in either they both couldnt recall past events
=procedural and semantic memory okay
= this shows a store can be damaged but the others arent affected meaning there are multiple stores in the ltm
real-life application=
-knowing different parts of the memory means psychologists can targert certain areas to help people
-found out episodic memory can be improved in elderly
weaknesses of tuivings ltm stores?
- cohen
=argues there isnt 3 ltm but 2
= they think procedural is its own store but semantic and episodic is stored together in a store called declarative memory= information that is consciously recalled
Who did the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974).
What is the working memory model?
= it proposes that the STM is made up of different stores
=it contains 4 components
=displays how memory is organised
Why was the working memory model proposed?
The MSM model was too simplistic and the STM was not a unitary store.
What are the four parts of the working memory model?
=central executive
=visuospatial sketchpad
=episodic buffer
=phonological loop
What is the central executives purpose?
=receives information from all sections
=monitors information, makes decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks.
Whats the capacity of the central executive?
limited
Whats the coding of the central executive?
=modality free
=not limited to sight/sound
Whats the purpose of the phonological loop?
=deals with auditory information
=stores words and rehearses any that are being considered
-split into two stores
=phonological store= stores words you hear
=articulatory process= allows maintenance rehearsal
Whats the capacity of the phonological loop?
2 seconds worth of information
Whats the coding of the phonological loop?
acoustic
Whats the purpose of a visuospatial sketchpad?
stores visual and spatial information
split into two sections
=visual cache= stores visual data
=inner scribe= stores the arrangement of objects
capacity of the visuospatial sketchapad?
3-4 objects = Baddeley
Coding of the visuospatial sketchpad?
visual
Purpose of the episodic buffer?
= temporary store for information
=links the working memory to LTM and wider cognitive processes
Capacity of the episodic buffer?
limited capacity
-4 chunks of information Baddeley
Support of the working memory model?
-Shallice and Warrington
=KF
=after his accident he could not processes verbal information well but could process visual information normally
= this means his phonological loop was damaged but other components weren’t
=however this may not be reliable as all patient are different
=Baddeley et al
=showed individuals struggled to do two visual tasks instead of one visual and one verbal
=this is because both tasks would be competing for the same slave system
=this means there must be separate systems
Weaknesses of the working memory model?
lack of clarity on the central executive
=Baddeley said its the most important part but the least understood
What’s interference?
- a reason of forgetting
-when two pieces of information conflict with each other resulting in forgetting one or both
What memory is interference related to?
LTM
=forgetting in the LTM
=interreference between memories makes it harder for us to locate them making them easier to forget
What are the types of interference?
=proactive interference
=retroactive interference
Whats proactive interference?
when a old memory interferes with a new memory
Whats retroactive interference?
when a new memory interferes with a old memory
Whats Mcgeoh and McDonalds experiment on interference?
= They studied retroactive interference by having similarites in lists of words
=participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember the list with 100% accuracy . Then they learnt a new list
= some examples of the lists are words with the same meanings. words with opposite meanings
FINDINGS=
=the partcipants recall of the first list depended on the nature of the second list. The more similar materials had the worst recall.
whats the supporting research of retroactive intereference?
= Baddeley and Hitch
=they asked a team of rugby players to recall the teams they had played against so far in the season
= most rugby players had missed a few games
Findings
- accurate recall did not depend on how long ago the match was
-players who had missing games had less interreference so were more likely to remember
= this means that the intereference had high ecological validity
Evaluation of the interference theory?
- strength= high ecological validity= baddeley and hitch rugby player experiment
2.weakness= lab experiment= lack of ecological validity but its easily replicable and is controlled= mcgeoh and McDonald
3.strength= reali-life application- adverts
= if two adverts are alike you can mix them up
Whats the retrieval failure theory?
- the reason we forget may be because of insufficient cues
-when we remember info we associate cues with the memory
-if the cue isnt available while we are trying to remember we forget the info
Whats encoding specifity principle (esp) ?
= tulving
-is when a cue has to be present when a memory is encoded and recalled for us to remember
=context dependant forgetting (external cues)
=state dependant forgetting (internal cues)
Context dependant forgetting experiment ?
= godden and baddeley
-divers learnt a list of words either underwater or on land and got asked to recall either on land or on land
-recall was more accurate when they were in the same environment for learning and recall
State dependant forgetting experiment ?
= carter and cassaday
-participants had to learn a list of words either on or off drugs then they had to recall either on or off drugs
- worse recall when they were different states for learning and recall
Evaluation for retrieval failure?
- strength= supporting evidence= Godden and Baddeley , Cassady and Carter = supporting evidence increases validity, and shows retrieval failure happens irl and in lab experiments.
2.weakness = lack of real-life application= Baddeley argues context dependant forgetting is not that common, learning in one room and then going to another is not enough change in environment for context change.
3.weakness= ESP cannot be tested= esp os an assumption as we cannot test if something is encoded into our brain by a cue . There is no way we can test if a cue has been encoded
What are eyewitness testimonies?
- used in court
-used to prove guilty or not
-responsible for 75% incorrect convictions - highly inaccurate
What are the two types of misleading information ? explain them?
- Leading questions
=questions that suggest a desired answer due to the way they are phrased
2.Post-even discussion
=when there is more than one witness, witnesses discuss what happened together
Elizabeth Loftus and Palmer misleading information experiment? (1974)
procedure
=participants all watched the same clip of a car accident and then were all given a question on it
=they were all asked how fast the car was going but as a leading question
=there were 5 groups and each were asked a different verb out of contacted,collided,bumped,smashed,hit
Findings
=participants given the word smashed estimated the speed higher at 40.8mph
=contacted was the slowest at 31.8mph
=shows leading questions can impact peoples answers
Whats the response bias explanation?
= the wording of a question has no effect on a persons memories , but it influences their answer
Whats the substitution explanation?
=the wording of a question impacts the persons memory of an event
Fiona Gabbert et al experiment on post-event discussion (2003)?
Procedure
=studied participants in pairs
=each participant watched a video of the same crime but from different povs
=this meant they could see parts of the crime the other couldn’t
=both participants then discussed what they saw to each other
Findings
=71% of participants recalled aspects wrong that they did not see but picked up in the conversation
= the control group that had no discussions had 0% wrong recalls
Conclusion
=participants go along with each other for social approval or because they believe the other person = the phenomenon memory conformity
Loftus and Palmers experiment no.2 misleading information?
procedure
=150 participants shown a multi vehicle car accident then asked questions
=split into 3 groups
-group 1= were asked how fast they were going when they HIT each other
-group 2= were asked how fast they were going when they SMASHED into eachother
-group 3= asked nothing about the speed
=all participants returned a week later and asked about the broken glass (there was no broken glass)
findings
the verb used for the orginal question influenced whether there was broken glass or not
Evaluation of loftus and palmer no.2 misleading information experiment?
realistic material = strength= car crashes happen in real life, however you do not see them daily
cannot be generalised - weakness- participants are students may not know hoe to drive so don’t understand speeds.
very useful - strength = can show false convictions can happen from leading questions
1.Strength= real-life application= police need to not ask leading questions as it can lead to false convictions
2.weakness- artifical material=loftus and palmer made participants watch films of care crashes and not real crashes so they will not feel the emotion of a car crash=this can give false results as irl the leading question may be impacted by emotions
3.weakness- in reali-life ewt the person knows their answers will have large impacts on an individual where as a research experiment does not
definition of anxiety and its impact on ewt?
a state of emotional and physical arousal. including worried thoughts
anxiety has big physical and emotional effects but it isnt clear if it effects ewt
Why does anxiety have a negative effect on recall?
- anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important cues = recall to be worse
- an example is if a weapon is present we have worse recall as we would focus on the Knife and not other details happening
Johnson and Scott experiment (1976) anxiety ?
procedure
-invited participants to a lab experiment
-participants had to wait in the reception
-receptionists left them alone in the room
-they were then places in one of two conditions
=1=no weapon = participant would overhear a convo on failed equipment then a man would walk into the reception with grease and a pen in his hands
=2=weapon=participants would overhear glass smashing and a loud argument then a man walks into the reception with a knife with blood on
Findings
=after all participants were asked to identify the participant to identify the man between 50 photos
=49% of participants could identify the man carrying the pen
=33% could identify the man carrying the knife= as of mainly focusing on the knife
Why does anxiety have a positive effect on recall?
-stressful events cause anxiety which creates fight or flight and alertness which may improve recall as we are more alert
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) anxiety experiment?
procedure
-did a study of a shop shooting
-interviewed 4/5 months after the shooting
-the interview was compared to the police interview from months ago
-accuracy compared
=asked to rate how stressful the event was
findings
=accurate recall after 5 months
=participants who were more stressed had better recall of 88%
=less stressed groups accuracy was 75%
=anxiety has a good impact on ewt
What did yerkes and dobsons believe?
-relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U.
=lower levels of anxiety=lower recall
=higher levels of anxiety= better recall
-however once anxiety is too high recall decreases
Evaluation of impacts of anxiety on EWT?
1.WEAKNESS
=may be monitoring surprise rather than anxiety
=Johnson and Scotts research focuses on anxiety from weapons however, they may just be more shocked there is a weapon than that they get anxiety from the weapon
=Pickel (1998)= conducted an experiment with random objects and the more surprising objects had worse recall
2.STRENGTH
=supporting evidence
=yuille and custhall
=interviewed participants that witnessed a shop shooting 4/5 months later and compared their recall the more stressed particpants had better recall with 85% accuracy
=shows real-life application
3.WEAKNESS
=lacking ecological validity
Johnson and Scott set up the experiment for the experiment
=they have have different anxiety levels irl
=not reliable
Fisher and Geiselman thought what about EWT?
believed EWT accuracy could be improved with techniques
Whats a cognitive interview?
fisher and geiselman thought ewt accuracy could be improved by techniques and these interview techniques would be based on psychology these techniques are called a cognitive interview
What are the four main techniques of a cogntive interview?
1, report everything
2,reinstate the context
3,reverse the order
4,change povs
what does report everything mean in the cognitive interview?
witnesses encouraged to say every detail of an event
important to say all details as it may trigger you to recall other memories
what does reinstate the context mean in the cognitive interview?
witness should go back to the crime scene in their mind and imagine the weather or the emotions they felt
this relates to context-dependant forgetting
What does reverse the order mean in the cognitive interview?
witness should recall it in another order that what it happened originally, this prevents lying
What does the change of povs mean in the cognitive interview?
witness is encouraged to recall it from anothers pov this stops schemas interfering with recall
whats the enhanced cognitive interview ?
=Fisher et al
=to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction
=eg , eye contact and the witness asked to speak slowly
Evaluation of the cognitive interview?
WEAKNESS
=it takes more time than a normal police interview
=training is needed to give a CI interview and mosyty police are not given this
=unlikely police will use it
STRENGTH
=supporting evidence for ECI
=kohnken et al
-combined 50 studys
=the ci proved to be more accuarte and effective than a normal interview
=shows real practical benefits and benefits to society
WEAKNESS
=increase of false accusations from ci
=kohken et al
=81% increase of accurate info from ci
=61% of inaccurate accusations increase
