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Psychology A - Level > Paper 1 - Psychopathology > Flashcards

Paper 1 - Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 separate definitions for psychological abnormality ?

A

Statistical infrequency
Deviation from social norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is statistical infrequency and its use of distribution curves ?

A
  • A behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon, or not seen very often in society.
  • Using data from statistics to see if behaviour is common or uncommon (abnormal)
  • Uses a distribution curve to show establish what is normal behaviour with majority of people in the middle = normal and relatively few people on the end so are abnormal
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3
Q

What is the defintion of deviation from social norms ?

A
  • Standards of acceptable behaviour (rules) set by society through collective judgment
  • Include implicit and explicit rules
  • If you don’t follow these rules = abnormal
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4
Q

What is the definition of failure to function adequately ?

A
  • Where an individual is unable to meet the demands of everyday life and their behaviour becomes abnormal Eg. Hygiene, nutrition, sustain friendships or a job
  • Causing suffering and distress to the individual themselves, and those around them such as their friends and family
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5
Q

What researchers looked into failure to function adequately and what did they add to the definition ?

A
  • David Rosennam and Martin Seligman
  • More ways to identify inadequate functioning : non - adherence to social norms, irrational, dangerous behaviour towards themself or others
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6
Q

What is the defintion of deviation from ideal mental health and who proposed the idea?

A
  • Marie Jahoda
  • Identified six criteria for ideal mental health, individuals who fail to meet these standards can be provided help and support
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7
Q

Give and explain the 6 aspects part of the ideal mental health criterion ?

A
  1. Positive self-attitude: Having self-respect and a positive self-concept.
  2. Self-actualisation: Experiencing personal growth and development. Becoming everything one is capable of becoming.
  3. Resistance to stress: Having effective coping strategies and being able to cope with stress-provoking situations.
  4. Autonomy: Being independent, self-reliant and able to make personal decisions.
  5. Accurate perception of reality: Perceiving the world in a non-distorted fashion. Having an objective and realistic view of the world.
  6. Environmental mastery: Being competent in all aspects of life and able to meet the demands of any situation. Having the flexibility to adapt to changing life circumstances.
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8
Q

What is the definition on of a phobia and what aspects does it affect you ?

A
  • Type of anxiety disorder, involves an irrational, persistent and overwhelming fear of an object or situation
  • Affects the way the person thinks, feels and acts
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9
Q

What are the three behavioural characteristics of phobias ?

A

Panic - crying, screaming, running away and freezing
Avoidance - interferes with the sufferers normal routine, occupation, social activities and relationships
Endurance - person chooses to remain in the presence of the feared stimulus

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10
Q

What are the three cognitive characteristics of phobias ?

A

Selective Attention - person finds it difficult to look away from object of fear
Irrational Beliefs - hold irrational beliefs in relation to the feared stimulus
Cognitive Distortions - persons perception of phobic stimulus is inaccurate and unrealistic

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11
Q

What are the two emotional characteristics of phobias ?

A

Anxiety - unpleasant state of high arousal makes it difficult for sufferers to relax or experience positive emotion
Fear - immediate, intense response sufferers experience in the presence of or anticipation of the feared stimulus

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12
Q

What is a specific phobia?

A

An irrational, persistent, and overwhelming fear of a specific object or situation.

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13
Q

How does specific, social phobia and agoraphobia affect quality of life?

A

Avoidance of the feared object or situation can have a detrimental effect on quality of life and the phobia can make the person experience anxiety

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14
Q

What is the most common category of phobia?

A

Specific phobia

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15
Q

What is social phobia?

A

It is an irrational, persistent, and overwhelming fear of social situations.

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16
Q

When does social phobia usually begin, and does it have a clear trigger?

A

It typically begins in adolescence and often has no obvious trigger.

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17
Q

What is agoraphobia?

A

It is an irrational, persistent, and overwhelming fear of being in a place or situation that would be difficult or embarrassing to escape from, or where help might not be available during a panic attack.

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18
Q

What kinds of places are commonly feared by individuals with agoraphobia?

A

Public places such as shopping centers or public transport.

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19
Q

What does the behavioural approach suggest about phobias?

A

The behavioural approach suggests that phobias are learned through classical and operant conditioning.

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20
Q

Who proposed the two-process model and what are the two stages of the two-process model ?

A

Mowrer. This model suggests that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning, maintained through operant conditioning

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21
Q

How does classical conditioning explain the acquisition of phobias?

A

When a neutral stimulus is associated with a traumatic incident

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22
Q

What was the aim of Watson & Rayner’s study?

A

To demonstrate how a phobia can be acquired through classical conditioning

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23
Q

Explain the procedure followed in the Watson & Rayner study ?

A

Participant = Little Albert
In the first phase of the experiment tested his reaction to a range of stimuli including a rat, a dog and a rabbit = not frightened by any of these (NS). Initially the only stimuli that triggered a fear reaction (UCR) was the noise (UCS) produced when a steel bar was struck by a hammer
During the conditioning phase when Little Albert reached for a white rat, Watson struck the steel bar with a hammer. This was repeated seven times over two weeks.

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24
Q

What were the findings of Watson & Rayner’s study?

A

Little Albert developed a fear of white rats.
He also showed fear responses to other white or fluffy objects (e.g., cotton, Santa Claus mask, rabbit), demonstrating stimulus generalisation.

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25
Q

How does negative reinforcement maintain phobias?

A
  • By avoiding the feared stimulus, the sufferer avoids fear
  • The sufferer will therefore repeat the behaviour of avoiding the feared stimulus due to negative reinforcement
  • This means that the sufferer will fail to face their fear, so their phobia will be maintained
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26
Q

How has the behavioural approach been applied to the treatment of phobias?

A

It has led to two behavioural treatments:
1. Systematic desensitisation (SD)
2. Flooding

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27
Q

How does systematic desensitisation work?

A

The patient is gradually introduced to the feared stimulus while practicing relaxation techniques, eventually becoming desensitised to the fear.

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28
Q

What are the three processes involved in systematic desensitisation?

A

Desensitisation hierarchy
Relaxation
Exposure

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29
Q

What is the desensitisation hierarchy?

A

A series of situations related to the feared stimulus, arranged from least to most frightening, created by the patient and therapist.

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30
Q

What relaxation techniques might a patient learn during systematic desensitisation?

A

Breathing exercises
Progressive muscle relaxation

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31
Q

How is exposure used in systematic desensitisation?

A

The patient works through the desensitisation hierarchy step by step, practicing relaxation techniques at each stage.

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32
Q

What determines when a patient can move to the next stage in the hierarchy?

A

The patient must master a stage, meaning they can remain relaxed while exposed to it.

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33
Q

How do you know when the treatment is complete?

A

The patient can move through the entire hierarchy without fear, meaning they are desensitised.

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34
Q

What is flooding as a treatment for phobias?

A

Flooding is a behavioural therapy where the patient is exposed to their feared stimulus directly and intensely for an extended period of time.

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35
Q

How does flooding differ from systematic desensitisation ?

A

Flooding does not involve gradual exposure. Instead, it exposes the patient to the most frightening situation immediately.

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36
Q

How does flooding work to reduce fear?

A

The fear response (fight-or-flight) has a time limit.
As the fear response naturally decreases over time, the patient learns that no harm will occur.
This leads to extinction, where the association between the feared stimulus and fear is broken.

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37
Q

How is flooding typically carried out?

A

The patient is exposed to the feared stimulus in a safe and controlled environment for a prolonged period until their fear diminishes.

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38
Q

What type of disorder is depression and provide the defintion

A

Mood Disorder - group of mental disorders that share primary symptom of changes to mood

39
Q

What is the common characterisation of depression ?

A

Lowered Mood

40
Q

How does DSM-5 categorise depression ?

A

Major depressive disorder : Short-term depressive episodes
Persistent depressive disorder : Long-term or recurring depression
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder : Low mood before and/ or after period

41
Q

How does depression impact your thinking and concentration, what type of phobic characteristic are they ?

A

Cognitive Characteristics :
Negative Thinking - negative view of world and lives, recall negative events, pay attention to negative aspects of a situation
Poor Concentration - difficult to concentrate on task or make decisions, interfere with work

42
Q

How does depression impact your self concept and emotions, what type of characteristic are they ?

A

Emotional characteristic
Low mood - feel sad, empty and hopeless
Low self esteem - like them self less than usual, some can describe a sense of self loathing
Anger - can be directed to self or others

43
Q

How does depression impact your energy levels, sleeping and eating habits, what type of characteristic are they ?

A

Behavioural characteristics
Change in activity levels - can either decrease = feel lethargic, withdrawn from work and social life or increase = agitated and restless
Change in sleeping pattern - reduced sleeping = insomnia or increased sleeping = hypersomnia
Change in appetite - increase or decreasing leading to weight loss or weight gain

44
Q

What does the cognitive approach suggest about the cause of depression?

A

The cognitive approach suggests that depression is caused by faulty thinking.

45
Q

What are the two cognitive explanations of depression?

A

Ellis’ ABC Model and Beck’s Negative Triad.

46
Q

What does the “ABC” in Ellis’ ABC Model stand for?

A

A - Activating event, which is a negative event that triggers beliefs
B - Belief, where negative activating events lead to either rational or irrational beliefs
C - Consequence, which refers to the emotional and behavioral outcomes of the beliefs

47
Q

How do rational and irrational beliefs differ in consequence it causes in Ellis’ ABC Model?

A

Rational beliefs lead to healthy emotional and behavioral consequences, while irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes, such as depression.

48
Q

How did Ellis define irrational beliefs?

A

Ellis defined irrational beliefs as beliefs that interfere with our happiness, not necessarily illogical or unrealistic

49
Q

What did Beck (1967) believe about depression?

A

Beck believed that depression is caused by negative schemas acquired during childhood, this creates a negative triad which includes three tropes of negative thinking patterns leading to a districted view of oneself.

50
Q

Give each section of the negative triad and what they mean ?

A

Negative view of the world : Pessimistic view on the world
Negative view of the future : Little hope for things to change, dismissing optimism leading to depressive symptoms
Negative view of oneself : Self deprecating thoughts

51
Q

Who believed that depression is caused by negative schemas acquired during childhood?

A

Beck (1967)

52
Q

What do negative schemas cause people to do?

A

They cause incoming information to be interpreted in a negative way.

53
Q

According to the cognitive approach, what affects mental processes in the context of depression?

A

Schema’s

54
Q

What are schemas?

A

Schemas are packages of ideas and information developed through experience.

55
Q

What is OCD?

A

OCD is a mental disorder characterized by obsessions (uncontrollable and intrusive thoughts, images, or urges) and compulsions (repetitive and ritualistic behaviors or mental acts)

56
Q

What is OCD?

A

OCD is a mental disorder characterized by obsessions (uncontrollable and intrusive thoughts, images, or urges) and compulsions (repetitive and ritualistic behaviors or mental acts)

57
Q

What are the four main steps in the OCD cycle?

A
  1. Obsession: An uncontrollable thought, image, or urge enters the mind.
  2. Anxiety: The obsession causes intense anxiety.
  3. Compulsion: The sufferer feels driven to perform repetitive behaviors or mental acts to reduce anxiety.
  4. Temporary Relief: The compulsion temporarily relieves anxiety, but the obsession soon returns, starting the cycle again.
58
Q

What other disorders are included in the “Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders” category?

A

Hoarding disorder - type of OCD where need to accumulate and keep possessions regardless of value.
Trichotillomania - Hair pulling disorder.
Excoriation - compulsive urge to pick ones skin.

59
Q

What are the two main cognitive characteristics of OCD and explain each?

A

Obsessions - incontrolable and intrusive thoughts, images or urges. Vary between people but always unpleasant in nature, creating persistent, recurring and extreme anxiety.
Hypervigilance - sufferers maintain constant alertness, focusing on potential hazards, especially in new situations.

60
Q

What are the two main emotional characteristics of OCD and explain each?

A

Anxiety - Obsessions are unpleasant and can be frightening, provoking overwhelming anxiety.
Accompanying Depression - OCD is often accompanied by depression, causing sufferers to feel sad, empty, and hopeless.

61
Q

What are the two main behavioural characteristics of OCD and explain each ?

A

Compulsions - repetitive and ritualistic behaviors or mental acts performed to manage anxiety caused by obsessions. They may be excessive or unrealistic.
Avoidance - avoid situations that might trigger obsessions.

62
Q

How do behavioural characteristics affect someone with OCD?

A

They significantly interfere with daily routines, work, social activities, and relationships.

63
Q

How has the cognitive approach been applied to depression?

A

The cognitive approach has been used to explain and treat depression, primarily through Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT).

64
Q

What is the main cognitive treatment for depression?

A

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT).

65
Q

What is one specific form of CBT used to treat depression developed by Ellis ?

A

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT).

66
Q

What is the key idea behind REBT?

A

Depression is caused by irrational thinking, and REBT aims to identify and challenge these irrational beliefs.

67
Q

What is the goal of REBT?

A

To challenge irrational beliefs and replace them with rational ones, leading to healthier emotions and behaviors.

68
Q

What are the three types of disputing techniques used in REBT?

A

Empirical disputing – Checking if there is evidence for the belief.
Logical disputing – Assessing if the belief logically follows from facts.
Pragmatic disputing – Evaluating if the belief is helpful.

69
Q

What is one specific form of CBT used to treat depression developed by Beck ?

A

Beck’s CBT

70
Q

How does Becks CBT treatment work?

A

Identify automatic thought that drive depression, identify cognitive biases, therapist challenges biases and offers alternative for automatic thoughts

71
Q

What does the biological approach suggest about the explanation of OCD?

A

Genetic explanation
Neural explanation

72
Q

How has the genetic basis of OCD been studied?

A

Through family studies, twin studies, and studies of individual genes.

73
Q

What do family studies suggest about OCD?

A

OCD is more common amongst the biological relatives of an individual with OCD

74
Q

What did Lewis (1936) find about the risk of OCD in families?

A

21% risk if a sibling has OCD
37% risk if a parent has OCD
2% risk in the general population

75
Q

How do twin studies support the genetic explanation of OCD?

A

Monozygotic (MZ) twins have higher concordance rates for OCD than dizygotic (DZ) twins, suggesting a genetic influence

76
Q

What do genes suggest about OCD ?

A

There are a number of genes that have been related to OCD. These are called candidate genes

77
Q

What did Taylor (2013) find about genes linked to OCD?

A

Evidence of up to 230 candidate genes, suggesting OCD is polygenic.

78
Q

What does aetiologically heterogeneous mean in relation to genes and OCD?

A

Different combinations of genes can lead to the condition.

79
Q

What does the neural explanation of OCD suggest?

A

OCD is caused by abnormal levels of neurotransmitters and abnormal brain structures.

80
Q

How do neurotransmitters relate to OCD?

A

Many genes linked to OCD affect neurotransmitter activity, which transmits signals between neurons.

81
Q

Which neurotransmitter levels are abnormal in OCD?

A

High dopamine levels
Low serotonin levels

82
Q

How are brain structures linked to OCD?

A

OCD is associated with abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes and left parahippocampal gyrus.

83
Q

What is the role of the frontal lobes in OCD?

A

The frontal lobes are involved in thinking and decision-making, and their dysfunction is linked to OCD symptoms.

84
Q

What is the function of the left parahippocampal gyrus, and how does it relate to OCD?

A

It processes unpleasant emotions and functions abnormally in OCD patients.

85
Q

How has the biological approach been applied to treating OCD?

A

Used to develop drug therapy as a treatment for OCD.

86
Q

What type of drugs are primarily used to treat OCD?

A

Antidepressant drugs.

87
Q

How is serotonin related to OCD?

A

Low levels of serotonin are associated with both OCD and depression.

88
Q

What is the main type of antidepressant drug used to treat OCD?

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).

89
Q

What are SSRIs and how do they work?

A

A type of antidepressant drug that increases serotonin levels by reducing its reabsorption into the pre synaptic neurone and promotes continuous stimulation of the post synaptic neurone

90
Q

How long do SSRIs take to show noticeable effects on OCD symptoms?

A

3 to 4 months

91
Q

What is an alternative to SSRIs for treating OCD?

A

Serotonin-noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs).

92
Q

How do SNRIs differ from SSRIs in the way they work and the severity of side effects?

A

SNRIs block the reabsorption of both serotonin and noradrenalin, not just serotonin. They have more serious side effects than SSRIs and are usually kept for patients who do not respond to SSRIs.

93
Q

What happens if an SSRI is not effective after 3 to 4 months?

A

The dose can be increased (e.g., from 20mg to 60mg a day), or a different antidepressant may be tried.

Psychology A - Level (7 decks)

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