Paper 1 Memory Flashcards
Define memory ?
process by which we retain information about events that happened in the past
What are the two stories of memory ?
Short term memory - memory of events in the immediate past
Long term memory - memory from events in the distant past
Define capacity and describe the difference in the capacity of STM and LTM ?
Measure of how much information can be held in each memory store
STM = limited capacity where as LTM has a potential unlimited capacity
How did Miller measure STM capacity (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?
Procedure:
Used serial digit span method
Participants given increasingly long lists of numbers
Asked to recall them in order
Findings:
Most recalled 7 digits
Some could recall only 5, others up to 9
Conclusion:
STM capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks
What is the capacity of STM?
STM has a limited capacity, meaning too much information leads to displacement
Displacement occurs when old information is pushed out by new information
Capacity can be increased through chunking
Chunking = grouping information into larger meaningful units
Define duration and describe the difference in the duration of STM and LTM ?
Measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available
LTM = potentially unlimited duration where as STM has a limited duration
How can duration be increased in the STM?
Duration can be extended through maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal = repeating information verbally
If rehearsed enough, information transfers to long-term memory (LTM)
How did Peterson & Peterson measure STM duration (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?
Procedure:
Participants given a nonsense trigram (e.g., ZFB)
Asked to count backwards in threes (to prevent rehearsal)
Recall tested after different time intervals (3s, 6s, 9s, 12s, 15s, 18s)
Findings:
80% recalled after 3 seconds
Only 10% recalled after 18 seconds
Conclusion:
STM lasts between 20–30 seconds without rehearsal
Define coding and describe the difference in the coding of STM and LTM ?
The way information s changed so it can be stored in memory.
STM = acoustically (sounds)
LTM = semantically (meaning)
What did Baddeley’s (1966a) study on STM coding show?
Procedure:
Participants divided into four groups
One group heard acoustically similar words, one group heard acoustically dissimilar words, one group heard semantically similar words, last group heard semantically dissimilar words
Asked to immediately recall words in the correct order
Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)
Conclusion:
STM codes acoustically because similar-sounding words caused confusion
What did Baddeley’s (1966b) study on LTM coding show?
Procedure :
Participants were split into 4 groups
Each listened to 10 words from same categories as 1966a
Asked to recall 10 words in the correct order after 20 mins
Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)
Conclusion:
LTM codes semantically because similar-sounding words caused confusion
Who proposed the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory?
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
Describe the of the MSM model describes memory
Characterises memory as the flow of information through a system in a fixed sequence.
Describe how the MSM model works (can include a diagram)
Information from environment enters the sensory register in its raw form and remains here only for a short period unless paid attention to, in which case is transferred to there STM. This memory can then be moved to the LTM by maintenance rehearsal.
What are the different sensory stores in the SR?
Touch, taste, vision, hearing and smell
What happens to information in the sensory register if it is not attended to?
It quickly decays and is lost.
Explain how information can be forgotten in the STM ?
Limited duration = information forgotten by decay
Limited capacity = information forgotten by displacement which is when old information is pushed out by new incoming information
How can decay and displacement be prevented in the STM ?
Maintenance rehearsal which allows repetition meaning transferred to the LTM
Explain how information can be forgotten in the LTM ?
Decay
How do we recall information from LTM?
It is retrieved from LTM back to STM, where it can then be used as output.
What causes retrieval failure in the LTM and explain what is meant by retrival failure ?
Retrival failure is caused by there being no suitable retrival cue and is the process by which items stored in the LTM cannot be accessed by the STM
Who proposed the Working Memory Model (WMM), and when?
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about STM?
It suggests that information in STM is processed (worked on) while being stored
How does the WMM differ from previous models of STM?
It replaces the idea of a unitary STM with multiple components.
What are the four components of the WMM?
Central executive (CE)
Phonological loop (PL)
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
Episodic buffer (EB)
What is the function of the Central Executive (CE) and what two key characteristics of the CE ?
Has a supervisory role, directing information to the three slave systems and collecting responses
Two key characteristics :
It has a limited capacity
It can process information from any sensory system
What is the Phonological Loop (PL) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?
Temporarily storing and processing auditory information
Two components :
Phonological Store - Holds words you hear for a short time
Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Silently rehearses words you hear using sub-vocal repetition
What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?
Temporarily storing and processing visual and spatial information.
Two components :
Visual cache – Stores visual information
Inner scribe – Deals with spatial relations, recording arrangement of objects in the visual field
When was the Episodic Buffer (EB) added to the WMM and what is its role?
Added in 2000 by Baddeley
Acts as an extra storage system with limited capacity.
Integrates information from the CE, PL, VSS, and LTM by recording events (episodes) that are happening
What is informational social influence,what type if process is it, when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?
•Informational social influence (ISI) is based upon the desire to be right and is a cognitive process
•It occurs when an individual looks to the majority to give them information about the right way to behave or think
• ISI is likely to occur
o In unfamiliar situations
o In ambiguous situations (i.e. when the right course of action is unclear)
• ISI is likely to result in internalisation
What is normative social influence, what type of process is it when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?
• Normative social influence (NSI) is based upon the desire to be liked and is an emotional process
• It occurs when an individual changes their behaviours and/or beliefs in order to be liked and accepted by the majority
• NSI is likely to occur
o In friendship groups
• NSI is likely to result in compliance
What is a criticism of the MSM regrading the LTM ?
LTM is not a unitary store
What are the three different types of LTM
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
What is episodic memory?
Episodic memory is a long-term memory store for personal experiences
What are the three elements of the episodic memory in LTM
Several elements, such as when it happened (time stamped) and the people, places, objects, and emotions involved. Requires conscious effort to recall
What is semantic memory?
Semantic memory is a long-term memory store for knowledge
How are semantic memories acquired ?
Begin as episodic memories because we acquire knowledge based on experience, gradually transition from episodic to somatic where the memory loosed association to a specific event.
How are semantic memories retrieved?
Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
What is procedural memory and how do we acquire them ?
Long-term memory store for our knowledge of how to do skills and actions which we acquire through repetition and practice
How are procedural memories retrieved?
Memories from this store are usually recalled without having to make a conscious effort
What theory explains forgetting in LTM beginning with I and define it ?
Interference theory and is defined as when one memory in LTM disrupts the ability to recall another memory in LTM
What are the two types of interference and define each?
Proactive interference - when a old memory interferes with a new
Retroactive interference - when a new memory interferes with an old
How does similarity affect interference?
The interference is worse when the memories are similar
What research demonstrated the effects of similarity on interference?
Research was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald (1931) to demonstrate this
What was the procedure of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?
- Participants were asked to learn a list of 10 words until they could recall them with 100% accuracy
- They were then divided into six groups - Group 1: Learnt a list of synonyms , Group 2: autonyms, Group 3: Learnt a list of words unrelated to the original words, Group 4: Learnt a list of nonsense syllables (letter combinations without meaning), Group 5: Learnt a list of three-digit numbers, Group 6: Did not learn a new list
- Participants were then asked to recall the original list of words
What were the findings of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?
Performance depended upon the nature of the second list. Finding that most similar material (the synonyms) produced the worst recall
What conclusion did McGeoch & McDonald (1931) draw into the effects of similarity on interference?
McGeoch & McDonald concluded that this demonstrates that interference is strongest when memories are similar
What is retrieval failure, and how does it relate to forgetting in LTM?
Form of forgetting when we do not have the necessary cues to access a memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
What is a cue in content of retrieval theory ?
Acts as a reminder to help access a memory
What are the two main forms of retrieval failure?
Context - dependant forgetting
State - dependant forgetting
Describe the Encoding specificity principle developed by Tulving ?
- Reviewed research into retrieval failure
- Consistent pattern - if a cue is to help recall then it needs to be present during encoding + retrieval. If cues available at encoding and retrieval = different or absent on retrieval = forgetting. This is known as the ESP
Describe the experiment conducted by Tulving and Pearlstone into ESP ?
Participants learn 48 words which are in 12 categories
Each word = category + word
2 recall conditions included : 1. Cues given in the form of category names = cued recall, 2. Not given any cues = free recall
Found that those using free recall remembered 40% words, those who used cue recall = 60%
What is context-dependent forgetting?
Occurs when external cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective.
How did Godden & Baddeley (1975) conduct their experiment into context-dependent forgetting ?
- Scuba diver participants learned a list of words either on land or underwater
- This creates four experimental conditions :
1. Learn on land – Recall on land
2. Learn on land – Recall underwater
3. Learn underwater – Recall underwater
4. Learn underwater – Recall on land
What were the findings of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study about context-dependent forgetting?
Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.
What conclusion did Godden & Baddeley draw from their study about context dependant forgetting?
Concluded that retrieval failure occurred because the external cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Occurs when internal cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective
How did Goodwin et al. (1969) conduct their experiment into state dependant forgetting ?
Male participants asked to remember a list of words while either drunk or sober.
Those drunk = around three times over the UK drink-driving limit.
Participants were asked to recall the words 24 hours later
Four experimental conditions:
1. Learn sober – Recall sober
2. Learn sober – Recall drunk
3. Learn drunk – Recall drunk
4. Learn drunk – Recall sober
What were the findings of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study into state dependant forgetting?
Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.
What conclusion did Goodwin et al. draw from their study into state dependant forgetting?
Retrieval failure occurred because the internal cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access.
