Pagan Roots of Modern Funeral Prectice

Question 1

The __________ _________ of a “decent burial” or some reverential form of disposition of a dead human body seems to be a common mores throughout the history of civilized man.

Answer 1

basic right

Question 2

_____________ ______________ defined as what people take for granted, the opinions which become firm premises upon which they base the final group thinking and their individual judgments without questioning the broad underlying assumption

Answer 2

Common beliefs

The concept of the American funeral is thus based in the development of common beliefs

Question 3

The importance of laws, customs, traditions and fashions (trends) all result in the entrenchment of what has come to be called ________ ________

Answer 3

funeral practices

Question 4

What lies behind the contemporary American beliefs and practices that have developed into our modern funeral customs?

Answer 4

1. CUSTOMS, LAWS, and TRADITION deeply rooted in the history of western civilization.
2. HUMANITARIANISM is defined as a doctrine that man’s obligation are limited to and dependent alone on man and human relations.
3. The development of personal services rendered by an OCCUPATIONAL GROUP set apart to serve these functions - MORTICIAN
4. Service based on religious concepts and teachings provided by the clergy of the JUDEO/CHRISTIAN FAITH.
   5 The desire to conform to developing HYGIENIC STANDARDS (OSHA & EPA REGULATIONS) as they evolved throughout history, particularly among western culture

Question 5

LIST QUESTION - Composition of western culture today, is a result of:

Answer 5

Greek Aesthetics and philosophy

Roman Law and administrative genius

Teutonic (Germanic) vigor superimposed upon the dominant Judeo Christian tradition

Pagan cultural and philosophical roots that developed into Hebrew beliefs that became the foundation of the christian religion

Question 6

Egypt was a relatively modern society that flourished for _________ ________ in the Nile Delta having a _________ _____ or _______ ______ : cultural, social, political, economic, and religious

Answer 6

5,000 years

Distinct order

Defined systems

Question 7

The Egyptians believed that the ______ was the center and the focus of the universe, from which all things emerged and to which they returned.

Answer 7

sun

Question 8

Osiris was the God of the ________ and ________ of the dead

Answer 8

underworld

judge

Question 9

The justified soul would be allowed to pass into _________ ________ and take the name ________

Answer 9

perpetual happiness

Osiris

Question 10

The belief of a circle of necessity, is in ___ _____ _______ with a later concept developed by the Judeo/Christian thinkers, specifically, the belief in the ________ of the soul

Answer 10

no way connected

immortality

Question 11

LIST QUESTION - The elements of the body

Answer 11

The BA - the soul or spirit

YAKHU - “the shining one” The soul transported to the sun

The NAME - identity of the deceased

The SHADOW - flesh and bones

The HEART - intellect and emotions (often not removed)

The KA - offerings to the dead; prayers, jewels, etc.

Question 12

What was the second motive for burial?

Answer 12

The Chinese and the Egyptians did dry burials to prevent plague from happening. The believed putrefaction in the soils would bring on plague

Question 13

What is a Dry Burial

Answer 13

Bodies that were clothed and laid upon beds of charcoal under six to eight feet of sand. These bodies were NOT treated chemically

Question 14

There are more ______ mummies than _______ mummies

Answer 14

natural

chemical

Question 15

Egyptians embalming practices peaked during the __________ _______ period

Answer 15

new kingdom

Question 16

Who is Herodotus?

Answer 16

“The father of recorded history”

he described embalming in detail in his work “The Persian Wars”

Question 17

Who is Diodorus Siculus?

Answer 17

He wrote about the embalming process during the time of Jesus Christ.

Question 18

The most expensive, highest grade of embalming practices were only for the __________

Answer 18

nobility and wealthy. which was on 2% - 5%

Also includes the Merchant Military class

Question 19

What is the FIRST step in embalming nobility?

Answer 19

STEP ONE - EVISCERATION PROCESS of all body cavities.
-The brain is injected with cedar oil thru the ear and nose. The brain is dissolved and removed. The cranial cavity is packaged with bandages soaked in resin bitumen (coal tar derivative).

-The thoracic, abdominal and pelvic area were entered thru the LEFT LUMBAR REGION. Cut with a sharp ETHIOPIAN STONE (black flint). viscera was removed, cleaned and spiced

Question 20

What is the SECOND step in embalming nobility?

Answer 20

STEP TWO - VATTING PROCESS
-The eviscerated shell is immersed in NATRON for 70 days (or drypacked for 35 days). The shell is then removed, cleansed and straightened to be baked in sun to induce dehydration.

Question 21

What is the THIRD step in embalming nobility?

Answer 21

STEP THREE - TREATMENT OF THE VICERA
-During certain periods of history, the viscera was packed in spices, vinegar, perfumes and resins, and RETURNED TO THE BODY CAVITIES

-During the NEW KINGDOM the viscera was placed in LIMESTONE CANOPIC JARS

Question 22

What are the 4 heads of the Canopic Jars?

Answer 22

MESTHA (Imsety) - human head protecting the stomach and large intestine

HAPI (Hapy) - baboon head protected the small intestine

TUAMUTEF (Dwanutef) - jackal head, protects lungs and heart

QEBHSENNUF (Qebesenuef) - Hawk head, protects liver and gall bladder

Question 23

What is the FOURTH step in embalming nobility?

Answer 23

STEP FOUR - WRAPPING and JEWELING OF THE BODY
- Painters and artists placed missing fingernails and toenails with GOLD THIMBLES (only for pharaohs)

• abdominal incision was sutured and a metal or gold seal with the “EYE OF OSIRIS” was placed on top so Osiris would pass judgment
• The body was spiced and jeweled using long bandages soaked in pitch blend, gum and glue. The body was wrapped wet so the end results are a dried hard shell

Question 24

What is the FIFTH step in embalming nobility?

Answer 24

STEP FIVE - ENCASEMENT PROCEDURE
- Remains were returned to family for encasement.

First a MUMMY CASE (wood)
Second a LARGER MUMMY CASE or RECTANGULAR BOX. (wood)
Third a SARCOPHAGUS of granite or cement

Question 25

Who and how were the middle class embalmed?

Answer 25

10% - 15% of all mummies

includes the technical class, merchants, and field officers

• NO EVISCERATION, but all cavities injected with cedar oil
• VATTING in natron for 70 days
• NO WRAPPING, BEJEWELING or ENCASEMENT. The pickled shell is returned to the family for them to handle

Question 26

How were the lower class embalmed?

Answer 26

80% of all mummies

• PICKLED SHELL dipped into vat of HOT BITUMENT or TAR for up to 70 days. (Black mummies)
• usually dry burials on a charcoal bed.

Question 27

What does Sarcophagus mean?

Answer 27

flesh eater

Question 28

In EARLY periods of Egyptian history, the desire to keep bodies from touching the earth were made of?

Answer 28

• Mats and animal skins
• reed baskets
• Wooden or earthenware canisters

also seen in most early african people too

Question 29

In LATER periods of Egyptian history the concern for perfection in preservation increased, so the use _______________ began

Answer 29

Sarcophagus.

They were massive rectangles with HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIPTIONS

Question 30

During the rise of the cult of Osiris, coffins were changed to…

Answer 30

ANTHROPOID (resembling man)

Wood is sculpted and later CARTONNAGED with linen and stucco

Question 31

What was final development of the Egyptian coffins and who was their influence?

Answer 31

portrait coffins were developed by the Romans

Question 32

Describe the Concept of Balance with the Egyptians

Answer 32

The heart of the death man was weighed against a feather by ANUBIS, the God of Embalming and Protector of the Deceased.

Should the balance be unfavorable, the heart was devoured by the monster AMENT thus ending the chance for the soul to become an Osiris

Question 33

What is a Necropolis?

Answer 33

walled suburbs established near large population centers in Egypt that contained mortuary temples and the residence of those involved with embalming

“cities of the dead”

Question 34

Who are the Guanches?

Answer 34

Inhabitants of the 13 Canary Islands. It was very similar to the Egyptian society.

Men embalmed men
Women embalmed Women

Those mortuary workers lived isolated and were respected.

Used a Black flint stone called TABONA

Question 35

What is Xaxos?

Answer 35

The name given to a Gaunche mummy. they were light in weight and hard as wood.

mens arms were positioned down and womens were folded over the abdomen

Question 36

The ancient Greek beliefs in death, went for a period of ______ years.

Answer 36

2,000

Question 37

During the Homeric times of greek history, the concept of a _________ ______ under the earth became a popular belief. A belief uncommon to ancient Mediterranean people.

Answer 37

Shadowy Afterlife

it was populated with disembodied souls

Question 38

Germanic European tribes began _________ and later made its way to Greece to become the dominant form of disposition.

Answer 38

cremation

Question 39

With the Cult of Dionysius, greek culture believed the concept of?

Answer 39

the soul separating from the body and joining the god

Question 40

What was the name of Greek Heaven?

Answer 40

Elysian Fields.

only a few selected would pass into this everlasting happiness

Question 41

Generally, the Greek population prior to Christianity held the most ________ view of the afterlife.

Answer 41

pessimistic

it was filled with despair and hopelessness

Question 42

The Law of Athens required?

Answer 42

a burial for all, including the corpse of strangers.

the cremains of fallen soldiers were returned after battle for a mass internment in Athens

Question 43

Types of Greek Tombs

Answer 43

Stelae or Shaft : upright slabs of stone; a kind of marker or head stone

Kiones or Columns : A tomb having above ground single or multiple columns

Trapezae or Square Cut Tombs : Mausoleum, similar to an above ground crypt; single or multiple interments

Niadia or Temple like structures: Owned by one family, most elaborate of the greek tombs, small burial building for multiple interments

Question 44

In Greek preparation of the body, all preparations were to be handled by the _______ of the family.

Answer 44

Females

there was no embalming, eviscerating or pickling. The body was only wrapped in 3 robes called BIERS

Question 45

For the Greeks, passage into the netherworld required?

Answer 45

crossing the river styx

A coin called an OBOL was placed in Mouth for CHARON the ferryman. If no money, the soul could wonder the shores of the river styx for 100 years.

Question 46

For the Greeks, the deceased was furnished with flowers and laid in state for _____ days, in fear of being buried alive. (WAKE)

Answer 46

7 days

the Greek were the first to use flowers.

Question 47

Included with the OBOL, Greek corpses also required a honey cake for the ________ _______ ______ named _______, guardian of the lower region

Answer 47

3 headed dog

Cerberus

Question 48

One hour before dawn, the Greek Procession would consist of?

Answer 48

1. Corpse bearers, OFTEN HIRED!
2. Female blood relations over the age of 16 or any female acquaintance over 60.
3. Fraternity members (occupational)
4. HIRED dirge singers

Question 49

Cycle of cremation and/or earth burial in Greek History

Answer 49

Prior to 1000 BC - earth burial

1000 BC - Christ, cremation (because of Germanic influence)

500 AD - a return to earth burial, greece was under Christian influence

Question 50

Ancient Greek coffins and tombs were actually?

Answer 50

grave liners or crude vaults.

The deceased was rarely transported in a coffin.

Question 51

What is a Bas-Relief?

Answer 51

an ancient Greek grave site with artistic design. Wheat was used as a symbol at the grave

Question 52

In celebration of the death, the Greek community would practice?

Answer 52

Funeral Feast - fast would break after interment

Sacrifices - animals would be sacrificed on specified days of the year

Suttee - (not really practiced) slaughter of slaves and animals to accompany the deceased in the afterlife. The most extreme was seen in the HINDU faith

Question 53

Describe the Romans Animistic view on Death?

Answer 53

Although separated at death from the body, the soul hovered around the place of burial for its continued peace and happiness. It required constant attention from descendants in the form of offerings, food and drink. (or the soul will turn evil and haunt the family)

Question 54

What is the Epicurean influence?

Answer 54

A Roman philosophical concept proposed that the body and soul, composed of atoms (small particles) simply disintegrating at death.

This resulted in the “live for the day” philosophy

Question 55

Roman and Greek burial/cremation cycles were _________

Answer 55

same. The influence of Christianity

Question 56

What is Commune Sepulchrum?

Answer 56

Extramural Internment burial pits outside the Roman City. They were placed away from the city for SANITARY REASONS

Question 57

Who were the “Misera Plebs”

Answer 57

Poor Romans who couldn’t afford a tomb. They were a burden to the state.

They were the reason Burial Societies began. (Christians)

Question 58

Who is Libitina?

Answer 58

The Roman Goddess of corpses and funerals

Question 59

Who is Libitinarius?

Answer 59

Roman secular funeral director charging for his services. He dominated and directed the funeral

Question 60

Who are Pollinctores?

Answer 60

Slaves or employee of the Roman Libitinaruis. They aided in using ointments, perfumes and spices to help hold the remains for about a week.

There is evidence of cavity evisceration and pickling for the rich

Question 61

Who is Designator?

Answer 61

The Roman “Master of Ceremonies”, subordinate to the Libitanarius who took charge of all FUNERAL PROCESSIONS. (apprentice)

Question 62

Who are Praeco or Crier?

Answer 62

a Special functionary who summoned the participants to a public Roman Funeral

Question 63

Who is the Buffoon?

Answer 63

Roman Practice

a hired actor to portray the deceased during the funeral procession. He would great mourners and thank those that attended.

Wax Masks from previous deceased family members were worn too

Question 64

Ordinary Funerals for the majority were held at night and the High status funeral processions were held during the day, but the _______ _______ ________ continued as custom

Answer 64

Custom of torchbearing

Question 65

What is Conclamatio Mortis?

Answer 65

A triple ceremonial farewell or calling out of the dead as they circled the deceased three times. A pagan ritual practiced by the Romans…..it was to try and wake them up

Question 66

The Roman Libitinarius would later be replaced by church-state officials called _______

Answer 66

Decani (one step from priesthood)

Question 67

The Decani would provide the deceased with?

Answer 67

a bier

coffin

grave

a religious procession including a cross bearer, eight monks and 3 ACOLYTES, also bier bearers

Question 68

Roman burial practice marked a major step in defining the status, character, and occupational role of the _____ _____ _____

Answer 68

modern funeral director

Question 69

The Hebrews believed that the man was composed of Two elements?

Answer 69

The BASAR (flesh) and NEFESH (breath)

Question 70

The Hebrews believed that at death, the soul would go to a netherworld called?

Answer 70

SHEOL (afterlife)

Question 71

At the time of Christ, Hebrew death beliefs were basically these:
(Christ preached these tenants)

Answer 71

• the soul of the good would pass on to a glorious existence; the of the evil would face eternal damnation (immortality of the soul)
• The soul at the last judgment would reunite with the body and be judged for the last time resulting in a final reward or punishment

Question 72

What are the typical Hebrew Burial Custom?

Answer 72

• remains were washed, spiced for odor
• attired in their clothing indicating their station in life. Shrouding came later. (Christ was shrouded)
• Out of hygiene necessity, all Semitic cultures buried the dead in the evening

–the poor were carried on a bier and interred in a shallow trench and covered with a mound of dirt. The rich were interred in natural caves or artificial stone sepulchers.

Question 73

What are some Hebrew Mourning Customs?

Answer 73

• mourners went naked until the burial rites were completed, this gave way to tearing of clothes later in history.
• men strip down to a loin cloth
• sandals were discarded as bare feet remained a symbol of death
• draped or covered their head
• shaved off beards and cut hair
• fasting
• hired mourners to sing dirges

Question 74

LIST QUESTION: What are the 4 varieties of Hebrew Graves?

Answer 74

SUNKEN GRAVE - simple bench or trench

SINGLE CHAMBER - above ground, one grave tomb

MULTI-GRAVE CHAMBER - above ground, more than one grave/cave

MULTI-CHAMBER - for the wealthy, several connected multi-grave chambers

Question 75

To the Hebrews, cremation was considered?

Answer 75

an insult and was strictly forbidden

Question 76

What is Canon Law 1203 and 1204?

Answer 76

revised in 1963, allowed cremation of the Roman Catholics as long as the intention is other than the denial of the resurrection of the body and Christian burial is permitted for the cremated remains.

No scattering of the ashes.

Question 77

Christians rejected Egyptian, Greek, and Roman concept of an ___________ afterlife based on discrimination.

Answer 77

aristocratic

Question 78

What is Extreme Unction?

Answer 78

The sacrament of preparation used for last rights at war

modern “sick call set”, sometimes in a crucifix, that is used by a priest.

Question 79

LIST QUESTION: In a Christian Wake, The Canon Law required that lying in state have?

Answer 79

• Lights at the head and feet (candles)
• The body be blessed with holy water and incense
• a cross be placed upon the breast, or if no cross, the hands should be folded
• coffin was optional, buried in consecrated grounds
• “THE KISS OF PEACE” - a departure from early Hebrew beliefs forbidding contact with the body

Question 80

LIST QUESTION: In the Christian faith, the wake or death watch would last from eight hours to three days and would serve two purposes:

Answer 80

• give time for the family to adjust to the loss of a loved one
• A common fear among the ancients was being buried alive. The wake guaranteed against premature burial. The tombs were often left unsealed for 3 days to be sure they were dead

Question 81

The funeral procession as well as the committal service were conducted under church supervision including:

Answer 81

• ALMS in the form of food and money were given to the poor
• PURGATORIAL DOCTRINE: Public prayers for the salvation of the deceased soul
• MEMORIAL REQUIEM MASSES on certain days to remember the dead. (All Saints Day - November 1st)

Question 82

What is an Extramural Interment?

Answer 82

All cremation and burials would take place away from population centers, often along roadway and always outside city walls

Question 83

What is an Intramural Interment?

Answer 83

Burial within city walls, in population centers in the vicinity of churches or within the church itself

Question 84

What is the Laws of the Twelve Tables?

Answer 84

Pre-christian pagan Roman Laws; one of which stated that there would be no burial or cremation in the city. (for sanitary purposes)

Question 85

The roman Catholic Church established great religious feast days to commemorate publicly and solemnly the death of martyrs, who were murdered for their religious beliefs. What were they?

Answer 85

November 1st - All Saints Day

November 2nd - All Souls Day

Question 86

What is a Levatio Corporis?

Answer 86

The Christian WAKE of an un-embalmed body in the families home

Question 87

LIST QUESTION: Cremation as a death belief involved two basic concepts and developed and influence projected into modern times.

Answer 87

• To burn the body as a method of keeping the spirits of the dead from harming the living
• To free the spirit of the dead from the clogging prison of the body.

Question 88

What is a Funeral pyre?

Answer 88

deceased placed on pile of wood and burned

Question 89

What is a Soul Shot?

Answer 89

Mortuary fees paid to the church from the estate of the deceased for complete funeral service was instituted. (Decani getting the money)

Question 90

What was Constatantine’s Edict of Toleration?

Answer 90

encouraged intramural interments without regard to sanitation - also developed church yard. (generally rich people were interred in church floors)

Question 91

Who was Emperor Theodosius?

Answer 91

re-instituted extramural interment by law for sanitary reasons. (bad odors in churches)

Question 92

What is the Legal Code of Justinian?

Answer 92

Required extramural interment by law for sanitation reasons

Question 93

Who is Pope Gregory the Great?

Answer 93

encouraged intramural internment as a right to every Christian (last Judgement - body and soul will reunite - want to be near the church)

Question 94

Who is Charlemagne?

Answer 94

(French) attempted to stamp out intramural burial by creating extramural cemeteries consecrated by the Roman Catholic Church away from population centers.

Charlemagne was buried intramurally in the church

Question 95

Who is the Archbishop of Canterbury?

Answer 95

rebuilt the Cathedral in 1705 with intramural crypts only for clergy and parishioners of Merit

Question 96

Who is Cardinal Bourbon?

Answer 96

Archbishop of Rouen stated not even the rich should be buried in churches. Supported extramural burial for sanitary reasons

Question 97

What is God’s Acre?

Answer 97

name given to intramural church yard, cemeteries built next to churches

Question 98

What is the Catholic Doctrine of Purgatory?

Answer 98

A state in which those whose souls are not perfectly cleansed undergo a process of cleansing before they can enter heaven

Question 99

What is a Death Watch?

Answer 99

a death crier dressed in black with a skull and crossbones on both sides of his gown, would ring a bell to announce the death of a guild member.

each guild would have a death crier

Question 100

The wake during the Middle Ages was characterized by rioting and drunkenness also obscene customs of “________ ___ ________”, a kind of necromancy or black magic to call out or raise the soul of the departed

Answer 100

Rousing the Ghost

Question 101

The Bubonic Plaque is caused by?

Answer 101

Yersinia pestis.

It is carried by infected fleas on Black Rats

Question 102

Who was The Flagellant Society?

Answer 102

Originated in Germany and Austria.

It was an anti-semetic order of lay men who blamed the Jewish population of Europe for the Bubonic plague

Question 103

What is the Aldgate Plague Pit

Answer 103

an extramural burial pit used to inter bubonic plague victims near London

Question 104

What was the Act of 1547

Answer 104

It forbid burials between six in the evening and six in the morning.

It was believed that the fog and mist would carry the disease.

It was also a way to monitor the dead

Question 105

What is a Parish Shell?

Answer 105

A rented coffin used as bier during the middle ages

Question 106

What is the Burial in Woolen Act?

Answer 106

The wool industry was in a depression, so the British Crown said all shrouds and coffin linings were to be made of wool.

This also helped conserve linen for the paper industry.

Question 107

What is the Black Cloak?

Answer 107

AKA: Widow’s Weeds

similar to those worn by nuns symbolized the mourning garments of the widow during the Middle Ages.

Widows assumed the look of nuns

Question 108

What was the Widow’s Code of Conduct?

Answer 108

the widow of an important man would retire to a convent or dower house garbed as a nun.

Remarriage was considered unthinkable

Question 109

What is a Sin-eater?

Answer 109

By eating a loaf of bread, drinking a bowl of stale beer over a corpse, and accepting a six pence, a man was able to take unto himself the sins of the deceased, whose ghost thereafter would no longer wander

Question 110

Why would you be buried upside down?

Answer 110

It was believed that on Judgement Day, the world would be upside down, turned around, you would rise in the proper position

Question 111

What is Zeit-Geist?

Answer 111

The spirit of the time, the view men take of death.

Question 112

What is a Divided Burial - Independent Heart Burial?

Answer 112

This practice was usually associated with relics; that is the hearts were removed from religious leaders and were preserved as relics

Question 113

What is Divided Burial - Independent Bone Burial?

Answer 113

This practice was usually associated with transporting war dead from the crusades back home to be interred.

Dead bodies were boiled down to skeletons and the bones shipped for funeralization.

Question 114

Who were called Short Robe or Long Robe?

Answer 114

Embalmers were called Short Robes

Surgeons were called long robes

Question 115

Who is Vesalius?

Answer 115

Wrote “De Corpora Humani Fabrica” one of the best studies of anatomy during the Renaissance

Question 116

Who is Mundinus?

Answer 116

Professor at the University of Bologna who dissected 2 cadavers

He is considered the first serious anatomist of the Middle Ages

Question 117

Rejection of the Doctrine of Purgatory and Indulgences was brought about by?

Answer 117

Martin Luther

Question 118

List Question - Who were the Egyptian undertaking specialists and what was there role or function?

Answer 118

Kher-Heb : Major priest in charge

Designor or Painter : Cosmetics, bejeweling and wrapping

Dissector or Anatomist : Evisceration and vatting (Paraschistes: Embalmer)

Scribe : Lawyer who over saw incision

Pollinctor or Apothecary : Chemist in charge of vatting

Physician or Priest : Assisted Kher-heb but was more involved with ritual and prayer

Embalmer or Surgeon : upper level Mast Dissector or Anatomist

Question 119

List Question - Funeral Functionaries in Roman society

Answer 119

Libitina - Goddess of corpses and Funerals

Libitinarius - Secular funeral director who collected money for funeral services

Pollinctores : Slave or Employee of the Libitinarius.

Designor - Master of Ceremonies for procession

Praeco or Crier - specialized functionary who summoned participants

Question 120

LIST QUESTION - To make cadavers with minimal amount of mutilation three system evolved. They were;

Answer 120

Evisceration and immersion - pickling (vatting)

Desiccation - Allowing a remains to dehydrate on a plaster of Paris Cast. (Leonardo Da Vinci made these)

Arterial Injection - The most recent and most successful of the three, it was widely used after William Harvey discovered blood circulation

Question 121

After 1350, Anatomist would switch from natural herbs and oils for embalming and use what instead?

Answer 121

Salts of Heavy Metal or Metallic poisons

Question 122

Who is Girolamo Segato?

Answer 122

A 17th century Florentine physician who injected remains with silicate of Potash and then immersed the body in a weak acid solution.

The end result was a stone-like statue

Question 123

What is the Warburton Act of 1832?

Answer 123

This allowed British Medical Schools to use unclaimed bodies for cadavers.

Many of these were arterially embalmed

Most were prisoners and Debtors Prisoners

Question 124

LIST QUESTION - What did Edwin Chadwick expose during his investigation?

Answer 124

• Child murder for insurance collections
• Embalming was poor quality, long wakes were unsanitary and contributed to sharing diseases
• Graves too shallow and was contributing to odors and gases being released
• Competition was fierce among undertakers but the cost of a funeral never decreased
• Burial Societies were operated and controlled by undertakers. Pricing was fixed
• the church of England was incompetent in record keeping and supervising administrative force in the funeralization process.
• Undertakers had to be regulated, too many are incompetent. There were no standards and anyone could do it.