P4 - Radiation For Life Flashcards

1
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Which direction do electrons move when a polythene rod is rubbed with a duster?

A

From duster to rod

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2
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Which direction do electrons move when an acetate rod is rubbed with a duster?

A

From rod to duster

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3
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is a static charge caused by?

A

Electrons moving

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4
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens if enough static charge builds up?

A

It can suddenly move which can cause sparks or shocks that may be dangerous.

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5
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can a charged conductor be discharged safely?

A

By connecting it to earth with a metal strap (earthing).

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6
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does earthing work?

A

Electrons flow down strap to ground if charge is negative and flow up strap from ground if positive.

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7
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are ions?

A

Atoms or molecules with a charge

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8
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does static attract dust?

A

Dust particles are charged and attract opposite charge. Objects in home are insulators (get easily charged) and attract dust.

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9
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does static affect clothing?

A

When synthetic clothes dragged (head or other clothes) electrons scrape off, leaving static charge - two attract. Little sparks/shocks as charges rearrange themselves.

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10
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What causes shocks from door handles?

A

Walking on nylon carpet with insulating soles builds up charge. Touching metal door handle/water pipe allows charge to flow via conductor - little shock.

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11
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can static on clothing become dangerous?

A

Charge may become large enough to make a spark - dangerous near inflammable gases or fuel fumes.

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12
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

When can static become dangerous (other than on clothes)?

A

Fuel flowing out of pipe, paper drags on rollers or grain shoots out of pipe, static builds up. If too big, might spark - explosion in dusty/fumey places (petrol station).

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13
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What kind of places is static dangerous in?

A

Areas with inflammable liquids or a high concentration of oxygen (hospital operating theatre)

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14
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How do anti-static sprays work?

A

Make surface of a charged object conductive - provides an easy path for charges to move away.

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15
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How do insulating mats and shoes work?

A

Prevent static electricity moving through them - stops human getting shocked.

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16
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How do paint sprayers work?

A

Spray gun charged and object given opposite to attract. Paint drops repel each other (fine spray).

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17
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the good thing about electrostatic paint sprayers?

A

Method gives even coat and hardly any paint wasted. No shadows - everywhere covered.

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18
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How do dust precipitators work?

A

Smoke particles reach chimney bottom, meet wire grid/rods with high voltage and (-) charge. Dust particles gain electrons (become (-)) Dust particles induce charge on earthed metal plates Dust attracted to metal plates - stick forming larger particles When heavy enough, particles fall off/knocked off with hammer Falls and is removed

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19
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does a defibrillator work?

A

2 paddles to power supply: Paddles firmly on chest (good electrical contact) and charged up Everyone moves away - operator holds insulated handles Charge passes through paddles to patient - heart contracts.

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20
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

If you increase the voltage….

A

more current will flow

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21
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

If you increase the resistance…

A

less current will flow (or more voltage is needed to keep same current flowing)

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22
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Current only flows when?

A

As long as there is a complete loop - broke circuit means no current.

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23
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does the live wire do?

A

Carries voltage. Alternates between a high + and - voltage of about 230V

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24
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What colour is the live wire?

A

Brown

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25
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does the earth wire do?

A

Works together with fuse for safety

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26
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does the neutral wire do?

A

Completes tcircuit - electricity flows out through neutral - always at 0V.

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27
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What colour is the neutral wire?

A

Blue

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28
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What colour is the earth wire?

A

Green and yellow

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29
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What must all appliances with metal cases be?

A

earthed

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30
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does double insulated mean?

A

If appliance has casing that is non-conductive (e.g. plastic) - doesn’t need earthing (never live)

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31
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens is a fault develops where the live wire touches the metal case?

A

A big current flows through live wire. Surge blows fuse and causes wire inside to melt. Cuts off live supply by breaking circuit.

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32
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

When the fuse blows, what does this prevent?

A

Electric shocks by isolating appliance. Stops flex overheating which may cause fire. Prevent further damage to appliance.

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33
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is a circuit breaker?

A

Works like a fuse but can be reset and used again.

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34
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How should fuses be rated?

A

As near as possible but just higher than normal operating current.

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35
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are the fixed fuse ratings?

A

3A, 5A and 13A

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36
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is a variable resistor?

A

Rheostat - resistor whose resistance can be changed by turning a knob.

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37
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are variable resistors good for?

A

Alternating the current flowing through a circuit. Turn up resistance, current drops (vice versa).

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38
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why do thinner wires increase resistance?

A

Electric charge has less space to move through.

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39
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the resistance of a fixed resistor like?

A

Steady - at a constant temperature

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40
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is resistance calculated?

A

Voltage / current

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41
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is the ammeter set up in a circuit to measure resistance?

A

In series with other components

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42
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is the voltmeter placed in a circuit to measure resistance?

A

In parallel around component being tested.

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43
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the official name for voltage around a test circuit?

A

Potential difference

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44
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are compressions?

A

Parts of a wave under high pressure (lots of particles)

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45
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are rarefactions in a wave?

A

Parts under low pressure (fewer particles)

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46
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is wavelength?

A

A full cycle of a wave from crest to crest/compression to compression

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47
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is frequency?

A

How many complete waves there are per second passing a certain point. Measured in hertz. Sound - high frequency=high pitch

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48
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is amplitude?

A

Measured from rest position to crest. Tells you how much energy wave is carrying, or how loud it is.

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49
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does a longitudinal wave move?

A

Vibrations are along same direction as wave is travelling

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50
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does a transverse wave move?

A

Vibrations are at 90 degrees to direction of travel of the wave

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51
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is ultrasound?

A

Electric devices can be made which produce electrical oscillations of any frequency. Easily converted into mechanical vibrations to produce longitudinal waves beyond range of human hearing.

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52
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does ultrasound work when breaking down accumulation in the body?

A

Removing kidney stones. High energy of ultrasound at stone turns it into sand like particles. Particles pass out of body in urine. Doesn’t need surgery and painless.

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53
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does ultrasound work in body scanning?

A

Waves pass through body but are reflected back when they meet a boundary between two different media. Echoes are processed by computer to produce video image.

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54
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What advantages does ultrasound have?

A

Ultrasound is great for imaging soft tissue. Safer doesn’t damage cells.

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55
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What do X-rays do compared to ultrasound?

A

Better for viewing bone. Can damage living cells by being ionising radiation, causing cancer at high doses.

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56
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are radioactive materials made up of?

A

Atoms with unstable nuclei that naturally decay at random

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57
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens as radioactive material decays?

A

Give out alpha, beta and gamma. Nucleus often changes into new element.

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58
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the relative atomic mass number?

A

Top number = number of protons and neutrons (AKA mass number)

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59
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the atomic number?

A

Number of protons

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60
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is an isotope?

A

Atoms of same element with different mass numbers

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61
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

When does gamma radiation happen in decay?

A

After alpha and beta, if nucleus has extra energy to get rid of. Emits gamma ray that has no mass or charge - atomic and mass number don’t change.

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62
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is an alpha particle?

A

Helium nucleus of two protons and two neutrons

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63
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What charge does an alpha particle have?

A

+2

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64
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What mass does an alpha particle have?

A

4

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65
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to the mass number when a nucleus emits an alpha particle?

A

Decreases by 4 because it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons

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66
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to the atomic number when the nucleus emits an alpha particle?

A

Decreases by 2 because it has 2 less protons

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67
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is a beta particle?

A

Fast moving electron

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68
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What charge does a beta particle have?

A

-1

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69
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What mass does a beta particle have?

A

0

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70
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to the mass number when a nucleus emits a beta particle?

A

Doesn’t change - lost a neutron but gained a proton

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71
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to the atomic number when a nucleus emits a beta particle?

A

Increases by 1 - has 1 more proton

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72
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens as more unstable nuclei decay?

A

Radioactivity of the source as whole decreases - older a resource, less radiation emitted.

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73
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the problem with trying to measure how quickly radioactive material decays?

A

Activity never reaches 0

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74
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the definition of half life?

A

Time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei now present to decay.

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75
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does a short half life mean?

A

Activity falls quickly because lots of nuclei decay in a short time.

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76
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does a long half life mean?

A

Activity falls slowly, because most of nuclei doesn’t decay for a long time.

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77
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What causes ionisation?

A

When some materials absorb ionising radiation - can enter living cells and interact with molecules.

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78
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does ionisation produce?

A

Charged particles called ions

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79
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is nuclear radiation and X-rays types of?

A

Ionising radiation

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80
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can X-rays and gamma rays do to electrons?

A

Transfer energy to electrons. Electrons then have enough energy to escape from atom, ionising it and leaving it positively charged.

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81
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can beta particles do to electrons?

A

Remove electrons from atom/molecule leaving them positively charged.

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82
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens if a beta particle sticks to an atom?

A

Ionises it making it negatively charged.

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83
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can alpha particles do to electrons in an atom?

A

Remove electrons, making atom positive.

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84
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why are alpha particles good ionisers?

A
  1. Relatively large - easy to collide with atoms or molecules 2. Highly charged - easily remove electrons from atoms they pass or collide with.
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85
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What do lower doses of ionising radiation tend to cause?

A

Minor damage without killing cells. Can give rise to mutant cells which divide uncontrollably - cancer.

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86
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can high doses of ionising radiation tend to do?

A

Kill cells completely, which causes radiation sickness if a lot of cells all get blasted at once.

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87
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Which types of radiation are most dangerous outside the body?

A

Beta and gamma - can still get to delicate organs (pass through skin)

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88
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why is alpha not dangerous outside the body?

A

It can’t penetrate the skin

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89
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Which source of radiation is most dangerous inside the body?

A

Alpha - do all their damage in a localised area, highly ionising.

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90
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What sources of radiation are les dangerous inside the body?

A

Beta and gamma - less ionising, often pass straight out with very little damage

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91
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What level of frequency do X-rays and gamma rays have?

A

High frequency

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92
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What distance wavelength do X-rays and gamma rays have?

A

Short wavelength electromagnetic waves

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93
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How are gamma rays made?

A

Released from some unstable atomic nuclei when they decay. No way to control when they are released.

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94
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How are X-rays produced?

A

By firing high speed electrons at a heavy metal like tungsten. Much easier to control production of than gamma.

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95
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can X-rays pass easily through?

A

Flesh

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96
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What can X-rays not pass easily through?

A

Thicker and denser material like bone or metal.

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97
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What makes an X-ray image?

A

Varying amount of radiation that’s absorbed (denser materials absorb more X-rays)

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98
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is gamma used to treat cancer?

A

*Gamma focused on tumour using wide beam. *Beam rotated round patient - tumour at centre. *Minimises exposure of normal cells to radiation, reducing risk of damage to rest of body.

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99
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What radiation can be used as medical tracers?

A

Radioactive isotopes that emit gamma (short half life - few hours)

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100
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can a patient be given a medical tracer?

A

Injected, drunk, eaten or ingested.

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101
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How are medical tracers monitored?

A

Progress followed by radiation detector outside body.

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102
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is an example of a medical tracer?

A

Iodine-123 absorbed by thyroid gland and shows if thyroid is taking all iodine it should.

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103
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why must all isotopes in the body be beta or gamma?

A

Can penetrate tissue so are detectable outside. Can pass out easily.

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104
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can medical instruments be sterilised?

A

Exposing them to high dose of gamma radiation.

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105
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why does gamma radiation sterilise equipment?

A

It kills microbes

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106
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the advantage of using radiation instead of water to sterilise equipment?

A

Doesn’t involve high temperatures. Plastic instruments can be sterilised without damaging them.

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107
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can radiation be used as tracers in industry?

A

Tracks movement of waste material to find route underground of pipes or detect leaks/blockages

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108
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is a leak detected using a radioactive tracer?

A

If detection of radioactivity stops/reduces must be a blockage/leak.

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109
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What must the isotope be for industrial tracers?

A

Gamma emitters so it can be detected through metal/pipe. Needs short half life.

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110
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why does the industrial tracer need a short half life?

A

So it doesn’t cause a hazard if it collects somewhere. Doesn’t pollute water.

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111
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What source is used in a smoke detector?

A

A weak alpha source close to two electrodes.

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112
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does a smoke alarm work?

A

In a fire, smoke particles are hit by alpha particles (less ionising of air) so current reduces, alarm sounds.

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113
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does background radiation come from radioactivity of naturally occurring unstable isotopes?

A

All around us. In air, food, building materials and rocks. Large proportion of background radiation comes from natural sources.

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114
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does background radiation come from space?

A

Known as cosmic rays. Come mostly from sun.

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115
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does background radiation come from human activity?

A

E.g. Fallout from nuclear explosions, waste from industry and hospitals. Represents a small proportion of total.

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116
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can the amount of background radiation vary?

A

Depending on where you are or job you have.

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117
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What 3 ways do we receive background radiation?

A

Naturally occurring unstable isotopes. Space. Human activity.

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118
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How can you work out the age of something using radioactive dating?

A

Measuring amount of radioactive isotope left in sample, and knowing its half life.

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119
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What fraction of the carbon in the air does carbon-14 make up?

A

1/10,000,000 (one ten-millionth)

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120
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the half life of carbon-14?

A

5730 years.

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121
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens when carbon-14 isotopes die?

A

Stop exchanging gas with air outside atmosphere and is trapped inside. Gradually decays.

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122
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How does uranium have a different half life?

A

Very long. Decay via series of short lived particles to produce stable isotopes of lead.

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123
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is produced after 1 half life of uranium?

A

50% uranium 50% lead

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124
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is produced after 2 half lives of uranium?

A

25% uranium 75% lead

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125
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the ratio of uranium to lead after 2 half lives?

A

1:3

126
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the ratio of uranium to lead after 1 half life?

A

1:1

127
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the ratio of uranium to lead before a half life?

A

1:0

128
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are nuclear power stations powered by?

A

Nuclear reactors

129
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens in a nuclear reactor?

A

Controlled chain reaction takes place - nuclear fission.

130
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is nuclear fission?

A

Uranium/plutonium atoms split up - releasing energy as heat.

131
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens after a nuclear reactor?

A

Heat from fission is used to produce steam. Steam turns turbines which drive generator, producing electricity.

132
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What isotope is used in some nuclear reactors and bombs?

A

Uranium-235

133
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is uranium-235 like?

A

Quite stable

134
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How do materials become radioactive?

A

When they absorb extra neutrons.

135
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is uranium-235 made radioactive?

A

By firing slow moving neutrons at the U-235 atom.

136
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does uranium-235 become to make it unstable?

A

Neutron joins, making it U-236 which is unstable.

137
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to the U-236?

A

Splits into 2 smaller nuclei, releasing energy and producing radioactive waste.

138
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does the split nucleus of U-236 also release?

A

2 or 3 fast moving neutrons which go on to produce a chain reaction.

139
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens to neutrons from previous fission reactions of U-235?

A

They are used to hit other U-235 atoms

140
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is a nuclear bomb?

A

Chain reactions that are out of control.

141
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

How is the chain reaction controlled in nuclear reactors?

A

Using control rods

142
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What are control rods usually made of?

A

Boron

143
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What do control rods do?

A

Limit the rate of fission by absorbing excess neutrons.

144
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is nuclear fusion?

A

Two light nuclei combine to create a larger nucleus.

145
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the equation for two hydrogen isotopes combining to form helium?

A
146
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Where does all the energy released from stars come from?

A

Fusion at extremely high temperatures and pressures.

147
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is good about nuclear fusion?

A

Doesn’t leave behind much radioactive waste and there is plenty of hydrogen available.

148
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is the big problem with nuclear fusion?

A

Only happens at really high pressures and temperatures (about 10,000,000 degrees C). No material can withstand that, so reactors are difficult to build. Safety issues.

149
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Name an experimental fusion reactor…

A

JET (Joint European Torus)

150
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why are no fusion reactors producing electricity yet?

A

It takes more power to get up to temperature than reactor can produce.

151
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why is research into fusion being undertaken by international groups?

A

To share cost, expertise, experience and benefits (when problem solved)

152
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What happens in a fusion bomb?

A

(AKA H-Bomb) Fission reaction creates high temperatures needed for fusion reaction which follows.

153
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What does a new scientific theory have to go through before being accepted?

A

Validation Process

154
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

What is ‘cold fusion’?

A

Nuclear fusion which occurs at room temperature.

155
Q

P4 - Radiation For Life

Why is cold fusion not accepted?

A

Data was shared so experiments could be repeated. Very few managed to reproduce results reliably - not realistic method of energy production.

156
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

From duster to rod

A

Which direction do electrons move when a polythene rod is rubbed with a duster?

157
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

From rod to duster

A

Which direction do electrons move when an acetate rod is rubbed with a duster?

158
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Electrons moving

A

What is a static charge caused by?

159
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

It can suddenly move which can cause sparks or shocks that may be dangerous.

A

What happens if enough static charge builds up?

160
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

By connecting it to earth with a metal strap (earthing).

A

How can a charged conductor be discharged safely?

161
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Electrons flow down strap to ground if charge is negative and flow up strap from ground if positive.

A

How does earthing work?

162
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Atoms or molecules with a charge

A

What are ions?

163
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Dust particles are charged and attract opposite charge. Objects in home are insulators (get easily charged) and attract dust.

A

How does static attract dust?

164
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

When synthetic clothes dragged (head or other clothes) electrons scrape off, leaving static charge - two attract. Little sparks/shocks as charges rearrange themselves.

A

How does static affect clothing?

165
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Walking on nylon carpet with insulating soles builds up charge. Touching metal door handle/water pipe allows charge to flow via conductor - little shock.

A

What causes shocks from door handles?

166
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Charge may become large enough to make a spark - dangerous near inflammable gases or fuel fumes.

A

How can static on clothing become dangerous?

167
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Fuel flowing out of pipe, paper drags on rollers or grain shoots out of pipe, static builds up. If too big, might spark - explosion in dusty/fumey places (petrol station).

A

When can static become dangerous (other than on clothes)?

168
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Areas with inflammable liquids or a high concentration of oxygen (hospital operating theatre)

A

What kind of places is static dangerous in?

169
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Make surface of a charged object conductive - provides an easy path for charges to move away.

A

How do anti-static sprays work?

170
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Prevent static electricity moving through them - stops human getting shocked.

A

How do insulating mats and shoes work?

171
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Spray gun charged and object given opposite to attract. Paint drops repel each other (fine spray).

A

How do paint sprayers work?

172
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Method gives even coat and hardly any paint wasted. No shadows - everywhere covered.

A

What is the good thing about electrostatic paint sprayers?

173
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Smoke particles reach chimney bottom, meet wire grid/rods with high voltage and (-) charge. Dust particles gain electrons (become (-)) Dust particles induce charge on earthed metal plates Dust attracted to metal plates - stick forming larger particles When heavy enough, particles fall off/knocked off with hammer Falls and is removed

A

How do dust precipitators work?

174
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

2 paddles to power supply: Paddles firmly on chest (good electrical contact) and charged up Everyone moves away - operator holds insulated handles Charge passes through paddles to patient - heart contracts.

A

How does a defibrillator work?

175
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

more current will flow

A

If you increase the voltage….

176
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

less current will flow (or more voltage is needed to keep same current flowing)

A

If you increase the resistance…

177
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

As long as there is a complete loop - broke circuit means no current.

A

Current only flows when?

178
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Carries voltage. Alternates between a high + and - voltage of about 230V

A

What does the live wire do?

179
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Brown

A

What colour is the live wire?

180
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Works together with fuse for safety

A

What does the earth wire do?

181
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Completes tcircuit - electricity flows out through neutral - always at 0V.

A

What does the neutral wire do?

182
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Blue

A

What colour is the neutral wire?

183
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Green and yellow

A

What colour is the earth wire?

184
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

earthed

A

What must all appliances with metal cases be?

185
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

If appliance has casing that is non-conductive (e.g. plastic) - doesn’t need earthing (never live)

A

What does double insulated mean?

186
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

A big current flows through live wire. Surge blows fuse and causes wire inside to melt. Cuts off live supply by breaking circuit.

A

What happens is a fault develops where the live wire touches the metal case?

187
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Electric shocks by isolating appliance. Stops flex overheating which may cause fire. Prevent further damage to appliance.

A

When the fuse blows, what does this prevent?

188
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Works like a fuse but can be reset and used again.

A

What is a circuit breaker?

189
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

As near as possible but just higher than normal operating current.

A

How should fuses be rated?

190
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

3A, 5A and 13A

A

What are the fixed fuse ratings?

191
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Rheostat - resistor whose resistance can be changed by turning a knob.

A

What is a variable resistor?

192
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Alternating the current flowing through a circuit. Turn up resistance, current drops (vice versa).

A

What are variable resistors good for?

193
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Electric charge has less space to move through.

A

Why do thinner wires increase resistance?

194
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Steady - at a constant temperature

A

What is the resistance of a fixed resistor like?

195
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Voltage / current

A

How is resistance calculated?

196
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

In series with other components

A

How is the ammeter set up in a circuit to measure resistance?

197
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

In parallel around component being tested.

A

How is the voltmeter placed in a circuit to measure resistance?

198
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Potential difference

A

What is the official name for voltage around a test circuit?

199
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Parts of a wave under high pressure (lots of particles)

A

What are compressions?

200
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Parts under low pressure (fewer particles)

A

What are rarefactions in a wave?

201
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

A full cycle of a wave from crest to crest/compression to compression

A

What is wavelength?

202
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

How many complete waves there are per second passing a certain point. Measured in hertz. Sound - high frequency=high pitch

A

What is frequency?

203
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Measured from rest position to crest. Tells you how much energy wave is carrying, or how loud it is.

A

What is amplitude?

204
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Vibrations are along same direction as wave is travelling

A

How does a longitudinal wave move?

205
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Vibrations are at 90 degrees to direction of travel of the wave

A

How does a transverse wave move?

206
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Electric devices can be made which produce electrical oscillations of any frequency. Easily converted into mechanical vibrations to produce longitudinal waves beyond range of human hearing.

A

What is ultrasound?

207
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Removing kidney stones. High energy of ultrasound at stone turns it into sand like particles. Particles pass out of body in urine. Doesn’t need surgery and painless.

A

How does ultrasound work when breaking down accumulation in the body?

208
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Waves pass through body but are reflected back when they meet a boundary between two different media. Echoes are processed by computer to produce video image.

A

How does ultrasound work in body scanning?

209
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Ultrasound is great for imaging soft tissue. Safer doesn’t damage cells.

A

What advantages does ultrasound have?

210
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Better for viewing bone. Can damage living cells by being ionising radiation, causing cancer at high doses.

A

What do X-rays do compared to ultrasound?

211
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Atoms with unstable nuclei that naturally decay at random

A

What are radioactive materials made up of?

212
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Give out alpha, beta and gamma. Nucleus often changes into new element.

A

What happens as radioactive material decays?

213
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Top number = number of protons and neutrons (AKA mass number)

A

What is the relative atomic mass number?

214
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Number of protons

A

What is the atomic number?

215
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Atoms of same element with different mass numbers

A

What is an isotope?

216
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

After alpha and beta, if nucleus has extra energy to get rid of. Emits gamma ray that has no mass or charge - atomic and mass number don’t change.

A

When does gamma radiation happen in decay?

217
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Helium nucleus of two protons and two neutrons

A

What is an alpha particle?

218
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

+2

A

What charge does an alpha particle have?

219
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

4

A

What mass does an alpha particle have?

220
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Decreases by 4 because it loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons

A

What happens to the mass number when a nucleus emits an alpha particle?

221
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Decreases by 2 because it has 2 less protons

A

What happens to the atomic number when the nucleus emits an alpha particle?

222
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Fast moving electron

A

What is a beta particle?

223
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

-1

A

What charge does a beta particle have?

224
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

0

A

What mass does a beta particle have?

225
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Doesn’t change - lost a neutron but gained a proton

A

What happens to the mass number when a nucleus emits a beta particle?

226
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Increases by 1 - has 1 more proton

A

What happens to the atomic number when a nucleus emits a beta particle?

227
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Radioactivity of the source as whole decreases - older a resource, less radiation emitted.

A

What happens as more unstable nuclei decay?

228
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Activity never reaches 0

A

What is the problem with trying to measure how quickly radioactive material decays?

229
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei now present to decay.

A

What is the definition of half life?

230
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Activity falls quickly because lots of nuclei decay in a short time.

A

What does a short half life mean?

231
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Activity falls slowly, because most of nuclei doesn’t decay for a long time.

A

What does a long half life mean?

232
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

When some materials absorb ionising radiation - can enter living cells and interact with molecules.

A

What causes ionisation?

233
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Charged particles called ions

A

What does ionisation produce?

234
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Ionising radiation

A

What is nuclear radiation and X-rays types of?

235
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Transfer energy to electrons. Electrons then have enough energy to escape from atom, ionising it and leaving it positively charged.

A

What can X-rays and gamma rays do to electrons?

236
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Remove electrons from atom/molecule leaving them positively charged.

A

What can beta particles do to electrons?

237
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Ionises it making it negatively charged.

A

What happens if a beta particle sticks to an atom?

238
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Remove electrons, making atom positive.

A

What can alpha particles do to electrons in an atom?

239
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

  1. Relatively large - easy to collide with atoms or molecules 2. Highly charged - easily remove electrons from atoms they pass or collide with.
A

Why are alpha particles good ionisers?

240
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Minor damage without killing cells. Can give rise to mutant cells which divide uncontrollably - cancer.

A

What do lower doses of ionising radiation tend to cause?

241
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Kill cells completely, which causes radiation sickness if a lot of cells all get blasted at once.

A

What can high doses of ionising radiation tend to do?

242
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Beta and gamma - can still get to delicate organs (pass through skin)

A

Which types of radiation are most dangerous outside the body?

243
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

It can’t penetrate the skin

A

Why is alpha not dangerous outside the body?

244
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Alpha - do all their damage in a localised area, highly ionising.

A

Which source of radiation is most dangerous inside the body?

245
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Beta and gamma - less ionising, often pass straight out with very little damage

A

What sources of radiation are les dangerous inside the body?

246
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

High frequency

A

What level of frequency do X-rays and gamma rays have?

247
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Short wavelength electromagnetic waves

A

What distance wavelength do X-rays and gamma rays have?

248
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Released from some unstable atomic nuclei when they decay. No way to control when they are released.

A

How are gamma rays made?

249
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

By firing high speed electrons at a heavy metal like tungsten. Much easier to control production of than gamma.

A

How are X-rays produced?

250
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Flesh

A

What can X-rays pass easily through?

251
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Thicker and denser material like bone or metal.

A

What can X-rays not pass easily through?

252
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Varying amount of radiation that’s absorbed (denser materials absorb more X-rays)

A

What makes an X-ray image?

253
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

*Gamma focused on tumour using wide beam. *Beam rotated round patient - tumour at centre. *Minimises exposure of normal cells to radiation, reducing risk of damage to rest of body.

A

How is gamma used to treat cancer?

254
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Radioactive isotopes that emit gamma (short half life - few hours)

A

What radiation can be used as medical tracers?

255
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Injected, drunk, eaten or ingested.

A

How can a patient be given a medical tracer?

256
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Progress followed by radiation detector outside body.

A

How are medical tracers monitored?

257
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Iodine-123 absorbed by thyroid gland and shows if thyroid is taking all iodine it should.

A

What is an example of a medical tracer?

258
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Can penetrate tissue so are detectable outside. Can pass out easily.

A

Why must all isotopes in the body be beta or gamma?

259
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Exposing them to high dose of gamma radiation.

A

How can medical instruments be sterilised?

260
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

It kills microbes

A

Why does gamma radiation sterilise equipment?

261
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Doesn’t involve high temperatures. Plastic instruments can be sterilised without damaging them.

A

What is the advantage of using radiation instead of water to sterilise equipment?

262
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Tracks movement of waste material to find route underground of pipes or detect leaks/blockages

A

How can radiation be used as tracers in industry?

263
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

If detection of radioactivity stops/reduces must be a blockage/leak.

A

How is a leak detected using a radioactive tracer?

264
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Gamma emitters so it can be detected through metal/pipe. Needs short half life.

A

What must the isotope be for industrial tracers?

265
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

So it doesn’t cause a hazard if it collects somewhere. Doesn’t pollute water.

A

Why does the industrial tracer need a short half life?

266
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

A weak alpha source close to two electrodes.

A

What source is used in a smoke detector?

267
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

In a fire, smoke particles are hit by alpha particles (less ionising of air) so current reduces, alarm sounds.

A

How does a smoke alarm work?

268
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

All around us. In air, food, building materials and rocks. Large proportion of background radiation comes from natural sources.

A

How does background radiation come from radioactivity of naturally occurring unstable isotopes?

269
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Known as cosmic rays. Come mostly from sun.

A

How does background radiation come from space?

270
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

E.g. Fallout from nuclear explosions, waste from industry and hospitals. Represents a small proportion of total.

A

How does background radiation come from human activity?

271
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Depending on where you are or job you have.

A

How can the amount of background radiation vary?

272
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Naturally occurring unstable isotopes. Space. Human activity.

A

What 3 ways do we receive background radiation?

273
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Measuring amount of radioactive isotope left in sample, and knowing its half life.

A

How can you work out the age of something using radioactive dating?

274
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

1/10,000,000 (one ten-millionth)

A

What fraction of the carbon in the air does carbon-14 make up?

275
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

5730 years.

A

What is the half life of carbon-14?

276
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Stop exchanging gas with air outside atmosphere and is trapped inside. Gradually decays.

A

What happens when carbon-14 isotopes die?

277
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Very long. Decay via series of short lived particles to produce stable isotopes of lead.

A

How does uranium have a different half life?

278
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

50% uranium 50% lead

A

What is produced after 1 half life of uranium?

279
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

25% uranium 75% lead

A

What is produced after 2 half lives of uranium?

280
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

1:3

A

What is the ratio of uranium to lead after 2 half lives?

281
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

1:1

A

What is the ratio of uranium to lead after 1 half life?

282
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

1:0

A

What is the ratio of uranium to lead before a half life?

283
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Nuclear reactors

A

What are nuclear power stations powered by?

284
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Controlled chain reaction takes place - nuclear fission.

A

What happens in a nuclear reactor?

285
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Uranium/plutonium atoms split up - releasing energy as heat.

A

What is nuclear fission?

286
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Heat from fission is used to produce steam. Steam turns turbines which drive generator, producing electricity.

A

What happens after a nuclear reactor?

287
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Uranium-235

A

What isotope is used in some nuclear reactors and bombs?

288
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Quite stable

A

What is uranium-235 like?

289
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

When they absorb extra neutrons.

A

How do materials become radioactive?

290
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

By firing slow moving neutrons at the U-235 atom.

A

How is uranium-235 made radioactive?

291
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Neutron joins, making it U-236 which is unstable.

A

What does uranium-235 become to make it unstable?

292
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Splits into 2 smaller nuclei, releasing energy and producing radioactive waste.

A

What happens to the U-236?

293
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

2 or 3 fast moving neutrons which go on to produce a chain reaction.

A

What does the split nucleus of U-236 also release?

294
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

They are used to hit other U-235 atoms

A

What happens to neutrons from previous fission reactions of U-235?

295
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Chain reactions that are out of control.

A

What is a nuclear bomb?

296
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Using control rods

A

How is the chain reaction controlled in nuclear reactors?

297
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Boron

A

What are control rods usually made of?

298
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Limit the rate of fission by absorbing excess neutrons.

A

What do control rods do?

299
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Two light nuclei combine to create a larger nucleus.

A

What is nuclear fusion?

300
Q
A

What is the equation for two hydrogen isotopes combining to form helium?

301
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Fusion at extremely high temperatures and pressures.

A

Where does all the energy released from stars come from?

302
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Doesn’t leave behind much radioactive waste and there is plenty of hydrogen available.

A

What is good about nuclear fusion?

303
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Only happens at really high pressures and temperatures (about 10,000,000 degrees C). No material can withstand that, so reactors are difficult to build. Safety issues.

A

What is the big problem with nuclear fusion?

304
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

JET (Joint European Torus)

A

Name an experimental fusion reactor…

305
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

It takes more power to get up to temperature than reactor can produce.

A

Why are no fusion reactors producing electricity yet?

306
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

To share cost, expertise, experience and benefits (when problem solved)

A

Why is research into fusion being undertaken by international groups?

307
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

(AKA H-Bomb) Fission reaction creates high temperatures needed for fusion reaction which follows.

A

What happens in a fusion bomb?

308
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Validation Process

A

What does a new scientific theory have to go through before being accepted?

309
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Nuclear fusion which occurs at room temperature.

A

What is ‘cold fusion’?

310
Q

P4 - Radiation for Life

Data was shared so experiments could be repeated. Very few managed to reproduce results reliably - not realistic method of energy production.

A

Why is cold fusion not accepted?