P3 Section B (Relationships) Flashcards
What is sexual selection
Sexual selection is the evolutionary process of selecting a mating partner who displays advantageous behaviour in human reproduction
What behaviour can be advantageous in human reproduction but disadvantage otherwise
Aggression can be advantageous in human reproduction but disadvantageous otherwise as it shows protection
What is anisogamy
Anisogamy is the form of sexual reproduction between the two opposite gametes - sperm and egg cells.
What is a consequence of anisogamy
A consequence of anisogamy is that there is a plentiful fertile male population, but fertile females are rare.
What are anisogamy’s two mating strategies
Anisogamy’s two mating strategies are inter- sexual selection and intra-sexual selection
What is inter-sexual selection
Inter-sexual selection is the strategy where mainly females have preferences for members of the opposite sex who have desirable qualities.
What is intra-sexual selection
Intra-sexual selection is the strategy whereby mainly males compete with each other to mate with a female.
What do females desire in a male
Females desire in a male: height, strength and physical attractiveness
What do males desire in a female
Males desire in a female: signs of fertility such as small waist-hip ratio and smallness
Summary of inter-sexual selection
Summary of inter-sexual selection: quality over quantity
Summary of intra-sexual selection
Summary of intra-sexual selection: quantity over quality
What is a psychological consequence of inter-sexual selection
A psychological consequence of inter-sexual selection is that females need to be very choosy as their offspring must have features of the mate
What is a psychological consequence of intra-sexual selection
A psychological consequence of intra-sexual selection is that males have a minimal post-coital responsibility as they are biologically driven by mating with as many fertile females
What is a behavioural consequence of intra-sexual selection
A behavioural consequence of intra-sexual selection is that males prefer youth such as youthful facial features and also fertility such as certain waist-hip ratio.
What is Fisher’s Sexy Sons Hypothesis
Fisher’s Sexy Sons Hypothesis is the idea that females prefer males who have desirable traits like height as this will be inherited by their son increasing the likelihood that they will then mate.
What was Buss’ method to support preferences relating to anisogamy
Buss’ method to support preferences relating to anisogamy was a survey of over 10,000 adults across 33 countries asking questions relating to their partner preference
What did Buss find to support preferences relating to anisogamy
Buss found to support preferences relating to anisogamy that females placed value on resource-related characteristics like finances and men placed value on reproductive capacity like good looks and youthfulness showing the sex differences in mating strategies
What was Clark and Hatfield’s method to support inter-sexual selection
Clark and Hatfield’s method to support inter-sexual selection was asking male and female students “would you go to bed with me?”
How do Clark and Hatfield support inter-sexual selection
Clark and Hatfield support inter-sexual selection by female/male confederates asking students “would you sleep with me” and found that 0% of females said said yes and 75% of males said yes - showing female choosiness when selecting a partner
How does Bereckzei say sexual selection has changed
Bereckzei says social changes have made women’s male preferences far less resource orientated as more women are financially independent
How does Singh support males preference of waist hip ratio
Singh supports males preference of waist hip ratio by finding that average liking is 0.7 to be deemed as fertile and not pregnant
What is a negative of Singhs WHR research
A negative of Singhs WHR research is that it was only tested on Asian men so can’t be applied universally
What did Anderson found about male preferences across countries
Anderson found that males in countries where food supply is scarce prefer heavier women but in countries where food supply is stable, men prefer slimmer women
What is self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is an act of revealing personal details like intimate thoughts, feelings and experiences.
How did Collins and Miller support self-disclosure in attraction
Collins and Miller supported self-disclosure in attraction as found people preferred those who reveal more information about themselves
What was Sprecher’s disclosure study procedure
Sprecher’s disclosure study procedure was pairing 156 participants and they engaged in a self-disclosure task on Skype
What did Sprecher’s disclosure study find
Sprecher’s disclosure study found that pairs in reciprocal condition liked closeness and enjoyed the interaction more than those in non-reciprocal dyads, so reciprocal disclosure more attractive
How does Reis and Shaver support Sprecher
Reis and Shaver support Sprecher by thinking relationship deepens by reciprocity - which also increases intimacy
How did Sprecher and Hendrick support self-disclosure
Sprecher and Hendrick supported self-disclosure by finding strong correlation between satisfaction and self-disclosure in heterosexual couples
How did Hass and Stratford support self-disclosure in relationships
Hass and Stratford supported self-disclosure by finding 57% of gay men/women said open and honest self-disclosure was the reason for a deep and committed relationship
How did Tang find cultural differences in self-disclosure in relationships
Tang found cultural differences in self-disclosure by reviewing literature to find men and women in individualistic cultures would disclose more sexual feelings than those in China - so self-disclosure can’t be generalised from the western cultures
How did Shackelford and Larsen say physical attractiveness affected attraction (symmetrical)
Shackelford and Larsen said physical attractiveness affected attraction as found people with symmetrical faces are rated more attractive as it is a sign of genetic fitness and also people are more attracted to neotenous features as they trigger a caring instinct
What is the halo effect
The halo effect is the tendency to to assign positive qualities to an attractive person like Palmer and Peterson finding better looking people were rated better politically
Who made the Matching Hypothesis
Walster and Walster made the matching hypothesis
What is the matching hypothesis
The matching hypothesis is the idea that individuals seek a partner whose desirability equals their own as it will maximise chances of a relationships initialising
What was Walster’s findings to test matching hypothesis
Walster’s findings were that people responded more positively to attractive people regardless of whether they matched in intelligence or personality - so not supporting the matching hypothesis
What was Walster’s repeated method to test matching hypothesis
Walsters repeated method to test matching hypothesis was having participants choose their own partners before the dance so it was more like real life as they could match with someone who they believed had same physical attractiveness
What was Walsters findings of repeated matching hypothesis
Walsters findings of repeated matching hypothesis was that findings did support matching hypothesis
Why was Walsters second attempt at matching hypothesis better
Walsters second attempt at matching hypothesis was better as it had more ecological validity
What is a negative of walsters matching hypothesis study
A negative of walsters matching hypothesis study is that attractiveness is subjective and the researchers who previously rated attractiveness of participants would have been influenced by their own opinions
Who theorised filter theory
Kerckhoff and Davis theorised filter theory
What is filter theory
Filter theory is the idea that people have a series of 3 filters which they narrow down potential partners from a field of availables to a field of desirables
What are the 3 filters of filter theory
The 3 filters of filter theory are social demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity
What is the social demography filter
Social demography filter is filtering by looking at proximity, age, ethic group, religion and social class which will lead to homogamy (relationship with similar people)
What is the similarity in attitudes filter
Similarity in attitudes filter is looking at whether partners share the same values which is mostly important for relationships under 18 months as it allows for self-disclosure
What is the complementarity filter
Complementarity filter is finding a partner who has traits that the other does not have which is more important for long-term relationships
How does Byrne support Kerckhoff and Davis’ similarity in attitudes filter
Byrne supports Kerckhoff and Davis’ similarity in attitudes filter by finding that similarity causes attraction
How does Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory lack temporal validity
Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory lacks temporal validity as modern society is more multicultural and interconnected than in 1960s, so social demography may be less of a barrier in relationships
How does Levinger criticise Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory
Levinger criticises Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory by finding in a study of 330 steadily attached couples, there was no correlation between duration of relationship and similarity in attitudes or complementarity
How is Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory culturally biased
Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory is culturally biased as it mainly focuses on western partners having individual preferences, but in some collectivist cultures, relationships are arranged so these filters do not apply
How does Anderson et al criticise Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory
Anderson et al criticises Kerckhoff and Davis’ filter theory by finding in a longitudinal study, cohabiting partners became more similar in emotional responses over time (emotional convergence), so it is not initial similarities which create attraction as these similarities are a result of the relationship
When does social exchange theory say relationships work
Social exchange theory says relationships work when rewards exceed the costs and potential alternatives are less attractive than the current partner
What did Thibault and Kelley propose we have in social exchange theory
Thibault and Kelley propose we have a comparison level alternative in social exchange theory
What is Thibault and Kelley’s comparison level alternative
Thibault and Kelley’s comparison level alternative is a standard which all relationships are judged against formed from experiences and expectations of relationships
What did Kurdek and Schmitt investigate
Kurdek and Schmitt investigated the importance of social exchange factors in determining relationship satisfaction in 185 couples
What did Kurdek and Schmitt find about relationship satisfaction
Kurdek and Schmitt found about relationship satisfaction that satisfaction was associated with a perception of benefits in their current relationship and a perception that alternatives to the current partner were less attractive
What did Kurdek and Schmitt conclude
Kurdek and Schmitt concluded social exchange factors which predict satisfaction in same-sex relationships are the same as heterosexual relationships
How does Duck support the comparison level for alternative
Duck supports the comparison level for alternative by saying that if people consider themselves to be in a satisfactory relationship, they may not notice that there are alternatives
What are Thibault and Kelley’s relationship stages according to social exchange theory
Thibault and Kelley’s relationship stages according to social exchange theory are sampling, bargaining and commitment
What is Thibault and Kelley’s sampling stage
Thibault and Kelley’s sampling stage is where people explore the rewards and costs in relationships, this can be done through observation of other relationships
Thibault and Kelley’s bargaining stage
Thibault and Kelley’s bargaining stage is when couples agree on the costs and benefits of their relationship - this is the beginning of the relationship where exchanges begin
Thibault and Kelley’s commitment stage
Thibault and Kelley’s commitment stage is where couples settle into relationship and there is stability as rewards increase and costs lessen
How did Sprecher support comparison level for alternatives
Sprecher support comparison level for alternatives as he found when commitment to relationship was high, attraction to alternatives is low
How did Miller criticise comparison level for alternative
Miller criticised comparison level for alternative as he found people who rated themselves as being in a highly committed relationship spent less time looking at images of attractive people - suggesting we don’t always compare relationship to more attractive alternatives
How did Gottman and Levenson support social exchange theory (ratio)
Gottman and Levenson supported social exchange theory by finding in successful marriages, the ratio of positive to negative exchanges was 5:1 but in unsuccessful marriages it was 1:1 and this helped develop integrated behavioural couples therapy to increase the ratio
What is equity theory
Equity theory is an extension of social exchange theory and is an economic model stating there must be equitable distribution of rewards and costs to make relationship satisfactory
How does Walster say relationship dissatisfaction occur according to equity theory
Walster says relationship dissatisfaction occurs according to equity theory when one partner under-benefits and one over-benefits
How does Hatfield and Rapson say relationship can repair according to equity theory
Hatfield and Rapson say relationship can repair according to equity theory by restoration of actual equity, restoration of psychological equity or leaving the relationship
When did Stafford and Canary say satisfaction is highest in equity theory
Stafford and Canary said satisfaction was highest in equity when spouses perceived their relationships to be equitable (in a study of 200 couples)
How does DeMaris criticise equity theory
DeMaris criticises equity theory by arguing men and women aren’t equally affected by inequity since women perceive themselves as under-benefitted more than men and they are more disturbed when feeling under-benefitted
How did Sprecher support DeMaris in criticism of equity theory
Sprecher supported DeMaris in criticism of equity theory by finding women feel more guilt than men in response to being over-benefitting
How did Aumer-Ryan support equity theory
Aumer-Ryan supported equity theory by finding it is important in all cultures that the relationship is equitable however perceived fairness changes from culture to culture like USA claiming to have most equitable relationships but Jamaica claiming the least
How did Clark criticise equity theory
Clark criticised equity theory by saying causality of inequity is unclear arguing couples don’t think of rewards and costs until they perceive inequity, whereas others argue people think about rewards and costs which makes them perceive relationship as inequitable
What is Rusbult’s investment model of relationships
Rusbult’s investment model is an explanation of relationships where person values investments they’ve made such as finances and shared children
What are the 3 factors of investment model that affect commitment
3 factors of investment model that effect commitment are satisfaction, investment size and quality of alternative
What is quality of alternatives factor of investment model
quality of alternatives factor of investment model is whether needs will be better fulfilled by somebody other than the current partner
What is satisfaction factor of investment model
Satisfaction factor of investment model is a measure to which the current partner fulfils a persons important needs
How is maintenance of relationship determined in investment model
Maintenance of relationship is determined by commitment in investment model
What are the two types of investment
Two types of investment are intrinsic and extrinsic investments
What’s intrinsic investment
Intrinsic investment is internal like memories, time and self-disclosure
What’s extrinsic investment
Extrinsic investment is external like children and pets
How did Le and Agnew support Rusbult’s investment
Le and Agnew supported Rusbult’s investment model by a meta-analysis finding satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investment size were all involved in commitment in various cultures and sexualities
How did Rusbult and Martz support Rusbult’s investment model (battered women)
Rusbult and Martz supported Rusbult’s investment model as they found “battered women” who were more likely to return to their abusive partner reported making greatest investments and had fewest attractive alternatives
How did Goodfriend and Agnew criticise Rusbult’s investment model
Goodfriend and Agnew criticised Rusbult’s investment model by saying investments are not just physical resources, they can be plans about the future
What is a causality criticism of Rusbult’s investment model
A causality criticism of Rusbult’s investment model is that direction of causality is unproven as it could be the more committed to a relationship, the more investment that is made rather than the proposed more investments the more committed
What are the 4 phases of Ducks phase model
4 phases of Ducks phase model are intra-psychic, dyadic, social and grave-dressing
What is Duck’s intra-psychic phase
Duck’s intra-psychic phase is where a partner privately thinks over the reasons of their dissatisfaction and evaluates relationship against alternative
What is Duck’s dyadic phase
Duck’s dyadic phase is when partners speak about their dissatisfactory relationship and the outcomes are either trying to repair the relationship or continue breaking up
What is Duck’s social phase
Duck’s social phase is when the break-up is made public and partners will discuss it with friends who will either provide reassurance or place blame on a partner
What is Duck’s grave-dressing phase
Duck’s grave-dressing phase is when the relationship is dead and each partner creates their own personal story of events to tell people so their reputation isn’t damaged
What is Rollie and Duck’s added phase to the phase model
Rollie and Duck’s added phase to the phase model is the resurrection process which is an opportunity to move beyond the distress of relationships breakdown and instead focus on personal growth
How does Tashiro and Frazier support Rollie and Duck’s added resurrection process
Tashiro and Frazier support Rollie and Duck’s added resurrection process by finding in 93 graduates who recently experienced distress during a break-up that they would also experience personal growth
What is a benefit of the grave dressing phase according to Tashiro and Frazier
benefit of the grave dressing phase according to Tashiro and Frazier is that partners are able to create stories about their role in the breakup so it doesn’t effect their psychological wellbeing, which Monroe supported as found students who experienced first break-up had greater risk of developing depression (showing this stage is important)
What is a real-life application of Duck’s phase model
A real-life application of Duck’s phase model is stressing the importance of communication in relationship breakdown so it becomes less stressful
