P1 Section B (Memory) Flashcards
What is sensory register according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) the sensory register is a memory store which holds sensory events such as sights, smells and noises.
What’s the duration of sensory register
Duration of sensory register is 2 seconds
What’s capacity of sensory register
Capacity of sensory register is over a million - large
How is sensory register information coded
Sensory register information is coded acoustically and visually.
What is duration of short-term memory
Duration of short-term memory is around 15 to 30 seconds
What’s capacity of short-term memory according to Miller (1956)
capacity of short-term memory is 7 +/- 2 according to Miller (1956)
How is short-term memory information coded
Short-term memory information is coded acoustically
What’s duration of long term memory
The duration of long term memory is 50 years and above
What’s capacity of long-term memory
Capacity of long-term memory is infinite
How is long-term memory information coded
Long-term memory information is coded semantically
What’s the belief that Multi-store memory model is based on according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) the belief that Multi-store memory model is based on is we process memories like computers process information
How does information move from sensory register to STM
Information moves from sensory register to STM by attention
How does information move from STM to LTM in the multi-store model
Information moves from STM to LTM in the multi-store model by memory consolidation which is rehearsal
How did Milner et al (1966) support that LTM had different stores
Milner et al (1966) supported that LTM had different stores by finding patient HM who underwent lobectomy for epilepsy could learn motor skills (which is procedural memory - part of LTM), but could not recall the tasks he completed to learn these motor skills (episodic memory - part of declarative LTM)
What was Tulvings (1985) explicit LTM memory
Tulvings (1985) explicit LTM memory was memories that we try to consciously recall eg facts. Explicit memory is spilt into semantic and episodic memory
What is Tulvings (1985) explicit semantic memory
Tulvings (1985) explicit semantic memory is knowledge of language, concepts and facts and words
What is Tulvings (1985) explicit episodic memory
Tulvings (1985) explicit episodic memory is knowledge of personal events we’ve been experienced
What is Tulvings (1985) procedural or implicit memory
Tulvings (1985) procedural or implicit memory is behaviours such as riding a bike
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect - method
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) gave participants and list of words to memorise and then recall as many as possible
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect - results
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) found that participants could recall words given at the beginning because they had been rehearsed in LTM (primary effect) and words at the end because they were still in the STM (recency effect) but hardly those in the middle.
What does Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect support
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect supports the idea that the LTM and STM are different and also the fact rehearsal is required in multi-store model
What is a weakness of Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect
A weakness of Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) serial position effect is it lacks ecological validity since it’s not how memory is used in real life
How does information move from the LTM to STM in the multi-store model
Information moves from the LTM to the STM in the multi-store modal by retrieval
How did Jacobs (1887) find digit span for capacity
Jacobs (1887) found digit span for capacity by asking participants to recall digits, starting from 4 and then adding another digit each time and found that the mean span for digit recall was around 7
How does Jacobs (1887) study lack temporal validity
Jacobs (1887) study lacks temporal validity as it was done a long time ago and early psychology lacked control so participants might’ve been distracted or tired so didn’t perform well
What did the Petersons (1959) find about duration of STM
Petersons (1959) found about duration of STM that duration was around 18-30 seconds unless repeated over and over again
What is a limitation of the Petersons (1959) duration study
A limitation of the Petersons (1959) duration study is that it lacks ecological validity as the material asked to recall was artificial, meaningless three-letter trigrams and so it can’t be extrapolated to all stimuli as short-term memory may be longer for more important information
What did Bahrick (1975) find about LTM (yearbook)
Bahrick (1975) found that LTM has a long duration as people were able to remember people from their school yearbook after 48 years
Strength of Bahricks (1975) study on duration of LTM
Strength of Bahricks (1975) research is that it has high external validity as it is a meaningful stimulus remembering people
Weakness of Bahricks (1975) study on LTM duration
Weakness of Harry Bahricks (1975) study on LTM duration is that confounding variables such as the fact participants may have been in recent contact with people from the yearbook weren’t controlled
How is information stored in sensory register (multi-store model)
Information is stored in the sensory register as either iconic memory (visually) or echoic memory (acoustically)
How does Baddeley support the multi-store model of memory (mix-up)
Baddeley supports the multi-store model of memory by finding that we mix up words with similar sounds when we’re using our STM but mix up words with similar meanings when using LTM - showing STM stores acoustically and LTM stores semantically
How does Craik and Watkins (1973) criticise the MSM (two types of rehearsal)
Craik and Watkins (1973) criticise the MSM by saying there is two types of rehearsal and to move information from STM to LTM, elaborative rehearsal is needed because maintenance rehearsal just keeps information in the STM for longer
How does Tulving (1985) criticise the MSM
Tulving (1985) criticises the MSM by saying that it is too simplistic and inflexible
How does neuroimaging support Tulving (1985) semantic and episodic memory
neuroimaging supports Tulving (1985) semantic and episodic memory by finding that when using semantic memory, the left side of the prefrontal cortex was active and when using episodic memory, the right side of the brain was active
How does Cohen and Squire criticise Tulving’s (1985) episodic and semantic memory
Cohen and Squire criticises Tulving’s (1985) episodic and semantic memory by saying that episodic and semantic fall under the same store called declarative memory so there are two types of long term memory - procedural and declarative
What was Baddeley and Hitch’s view on memory
Baddeley and Hitch’s view on memory was that memory was a number of different stores
What is Baddeley and Hitch’s memory model called
Baddeley and Hitch’s memory model is called the working memory model
What are the five parts of the working memory model
the five parts of the working memory model are the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and long term memory
What is the job of the working memory model’s central executive
The job of the working memory model’s central executive is to decide how resources are allocated like deciding which issues need attention
What is the capacity of the working memory model’s central executive
The capacity of the working memory model’s central executive is limited
How does information transfer into the central executive
information transfer into the central executive by the inner ear and eyes
What is the job of the phonological loop
The job of the phonological loop is to process auditory information by holding words we hear in the phonological store and allow us to repeat words in a loop (using the articulatory process)
What is the capacity of the phonological loop
The capacity of the phonological loop is around 2 seconds of articulatory information like sound
How does information transfer into the phonological store
information transfers into the phonological store by spoken words which directly transfer through the inner ear and written words which are first converted into articulatory code then enter phonological store
What is the job of the visuospatial sketchpad
The job of the visuospatial sketchpad is to store visual information (in the visual cache) and spatial information (in the inner scribe) like how many windows you seen on a house
What is the capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad
The capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad is around 3 or 4 objects so is limited
What is the job of the episodic buffer
The job of the episodic buffer is to temporarily store all the visual, articulatory and spatial information from the other stores in one memory so it can then pass it onto the long-term memory
How does patient KF support Baddeley and Hitch’s Working memory model
Patient KF supports Baddeley and Hitch’s Working memory model as after brain damage, KF couldn’t process verbal information but could process visual information - suggesting only his phonological loop had been damaged supporting the idea that there is separate stores of visual and articulatory information
How can patient KF be criticised for supporting the working memory model
patient KF can be criticised for supporting the working memory model as evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable since the cases are unique and not representative of all memory
How did Baddeley support the working memory model
Baddeley supported the working memory model by finding that completing two visual tasks at the same time was more difficult than completing a visual and verbal task at the same time which supports idea that there must be a separate store system processing a visual input - the visuospatial sketchpad
How did Braver et al support the working memory model
Braver et al supported the working memory model by finding that when demands on the central executive increased, it has to work harder to fulfil its function seen by increased activity in the left prefrontal cortex on a brain scan
What is interference theory
Interference theory is the theory of forgetting where when two pieces of information are conflicting, it results in one or both pieces of information being forgotten
Where does interference forgetting mainly take place
interference forgetting mainly takes place in the LTM
What’re the two types of interference leading to forgetting
The two types of interference leading to forgetting are proactive interference and retroactive interference
What is proactive interference
Proactive interference is when an older memory interferes with a newer memory
What is retroactive interference
Retroactive interference is when a newer memory interferes with an older memory
When can interference become more likely
Interference can become more likely when the memories are similar
How do Burke and Skrull support similarity in interference theory
Burke and Skrull support similarity in interference theory by finding that when participants had to recall information from magazine adverts, they found it more difficult to do so when the adverts had a similar products shown and this also has real-life application as marketers can use this knowledge to make sure their ads are shown some time after similar ads so it’s better remembered
How do lab studies support interference theory
Lab studies support interference theory by finding that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways we forget information from the LTM
How did Baddeley and Hitch support interference theory (rugby)
Baddeley and Hitch supported interference theory by finding there was real-life application when a rugby player’s recall of a team they played 3 weeks ago was better if they hadn’t played a game since then
What is Tulving’s retrieval failure theory for forgetting
Tulving’s retrieval failure theory for forgetting is the idea that a person is more likely to forget something if they aren’t in a similar situation to where they learnt the information as the person lacks the cue to access the memory
What can Tulving’s cues be that need to be similar to retrieve information
Tulving’s cues that need to be similar to retrieve information can be an emotional state of how we felt when we learnt the information or the place we were in
What is Tulving’s ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE
Tulving’s ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE is that “the greater similarity between the encoding and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original memory”
What are Tulving’s 2 types of retrieval cues
Tulving’s 2 types of retrieval cues are context-dependent cues and state-dependent cues
What is Tulving’s context-dependent cue
Tulving’s context-dependent cue is an external environment cue to remember
What is Tulving’s state-dependent cue
Tulving’s state-dependent cue is a internal cue
How did Baddeley and Godden support Tulving’s context-dependent cues
Baddeley and Godden supported Tulving’s context-dependent cues by finding that when deep sea divers were in the same environment they learnt a piece of information in, they recalled 40% more information than in an environment they did not learn the information in - like recalling in sea and learning on land
How did Carter and Cassady support Tulving’s state-dependent dues
Carter and Cassady supported Tulving’s state-dependent dues by finding that when drowsy with drugs when both learning and recalling information, recalling was better but when drowsy with drugs in learning but sober in recalling, recalling was much worse
What are strengths of the supporting studies for Tulving’s retrieval cues
The strengths of the supporting studies for Tulving’s retrieval cues are that both Baddeley and Godden and Carter and Cassaday performed their studies in a lab and so they’re controlled
How does Baddeley criticise Tulving’s context-dependent cues
Baddeley criticises Tulving’s context-dependent cues by saying that the environments must be completely different when learning and recalling in order to forget the information (like underwater and on land) and just recalling information in a different room isn’t enough to forget
What is an eyewitness testimony
An eyewitness testimony is a legal term referring to the account given by a person who witnessed an event
What is a leading question
A leading question is a question which hints a particular type of answer is required
What is a cognitive interview
A cognitive interview is a method of interview that involves recreating an events context for the eyewitness to recall
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) try to find
Loftus and Palmer (1974) tried to find whether leading questions would affect the accuracy of recall
What was Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) method
Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) method was showing participants a video of a car crash and then some were asked “how fast was the car going when it hit the other car” and others were asked “how fast was the car going when it smashed the other car”
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) find
Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that those who heard “smashed” gave a higher speed estimate (40.8 mph) than those who heard “hit” (34 mph)
What did Loftus and Palmer (1974) conclude
Loftus and Palmer (1974) concluded that leading questions will reduce the accuracy of recall
How did Baddeley and Godden encourage the cognitive interview
Baddeley and Godden encouraged the cognitive interview as they found that information was better recalled when we are in the same situation as we first stored the information
What did Geiselman et al (1985) find about cognitive interview
Geiselman et al (1985) found about cognitive interview that participants who were interviewed when given context (like given a sequence of events) would recall information better about the details of a crime than if no context was given and a standard police interview was given
How is a cognitive interview different from a standard interview
A cognitive interview is different from a standard interview as witnesses are encouraged to recreate the original scene with context, retrieval cues are given to help memory such as pictures and open questions are used and witnesses are given time to recall without being interrupted
What does the response-bias explanation suggest about leading questions
response-bias explanation suggests that leading questions just influences the way a person answers but doesn’t have an effect on a witnesses memory
How did Loftus criticise the response-bias explanation
Loftus criticised the response-bias explanation by finding that when changing the wording of the car question to “smashed” rather than “hit”, people were more likely to believe there was smashed glass - which there wasn’t
What was Gabbert’s (2003) method to find if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall (pairing)
Gabbert’s (2003) method to find if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall was pairing participants and making each watch a video of the same crime but from different angles and then they discussed what they seen at the end
What was Gabbert’s (2003) findings of if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall
Gabbert’s (2003) findings of if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall was that 71% of participants recalled aspects of the event that they didn’t see and in a control group where there was no post-event discussion, there was 0 different recalls
What was Gabbert’s (2003) conclusion of if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall
Gabbert’s (2003) conclusion of if post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall was that memory conformity occurs in post-event discussion as people want to be approved or lack their own knowledge
What is a strength of research into leading questions
A strength of research into leading questions is that it provides real-life application as police are able to redesign their interviewing techniques since leading questions distort memory and recall
What is a weakness of Loftus and Palmer (1974) car clip recall
A weakness of Loftus and Palmer (1974) car clip recall is that since it was a video, participants are less likely to be affected by emotions which affect memory in real-life eyewitness testimonies
How did Fisher and Geiselman say eyewitness testimony could be improved (interview techniques)
Fisher and Geiselman said eyewitness testimony could be improved by using 4 cognitive interview techniques- report everything, reinstate context, reverse the order and change perspective
What is a con of cognitive interview
A con of the cognitive interview is that it is time consuming (some may last days making witness tired and give faulty information) and it also requires more training and amount of questions asked may mean if witnesses cannot remember they may make up details to avoid embarrassment and please the interviewer
How did Johnson and Scott see if anxiety affected eyewitness testimony
Loftus seen if anxiety affected eyewitness testimony by conducting a study where in one condition, people seen a man come out of a lab room with a pen and greasy hands and in another condition, people seen a man come out of lab with bloody hands and a knife after glass smashed and then Johnson and Scott asked participants to recall the man who left the room by selecting 1 of 50 photos
What did Johnson and Scott find in his study to see if anxiety affected eyewitness testimony
Johnson and Scott found in his study to see if anxiety affected eyewitness testimony that condition 1 has 49% accuracy whereas condition 2 has 33% accuracy - showing anxiety affects recall
What is a strength of Johnson and Scott eyewitness testimony anxiety study
A strength of Loftus eyewitness testimony anxiety study is that there is high ecological validity as participants didn’t know it was staged
What is a weakness of Johnson and Scott eyewitness testimony anxiety study
A weakness of Johnson and Scott eyewitness testimony anxiety study is that it is unethical as it doesn’t protect from harm since person seeing man with bloody hands and knife could be traumatic
What is Fisher’s (1989) Enhanced Cognitive Interview
Fisher’s (1989) Enhanced Cognitive Interview is a development of the cognitive interview where interviewer uses mental imagery and speaks slowly and tells eyewitness to report everything which produces better results than a standard police interview
How does Kohnken support cognitive interview
Kohnken support cognitive interview as he found in a meta-analysis of 53 studies that cognitive interview increased recall on average by 34% in comparison to standard interview
what are weaknesses of Kohnken’s cognitive interview support
weaknesses of Kohnken’s cognitive interview support are that it has low ecological validity as a lab study, it has low population validity since majoirty of assessed studies were on students
how does Yuille and Cutshall criticise Johnson and Scott in anxiety affecting eyewitness recall
Yuille and Cutshall criticise Johnson and Scott in anxiety affecting eyewitness recall by finding witnesses of real-life gun shooting had remarkable recall despite the stressful situation and even recalled 5 months after
what is a weakness of Yuille and Cutshall criticism of Johnson and Scott in anxiety affecting eyewitness recall
weakness of Yuille and Cutshall criticism of Johnson and Scott in anxiety affecting eyewitness recall is that those who were most stressed were also closest in proximity, so could just be proximity to gunman allowing better recall
How does Clifford and Scott support Johnson and Scott
Clifford and Scott support Johnson and Scott as they found those who watched a film of violent attack recalled less than those who watched less stressful version
