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AQA A level Psychology > P3: Relationships > Flashcards

P3: Relationships Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sexual selection

A

Attributes/behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over time

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2
Q

What is human reproductive behaviour

A

Behaviours which relate to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chance of our genes

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3
Q

What is anisogamy

A

differences between male and female sex cells

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4
Q

Name some key differences between the Male and female anisogamy(sex cells)

A

Male: small,mobile,continuously produced
Female: large,static,limited production

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5
Q

What is inter-sexual selection and which sex prefers this mating strategy

A

Selection of mates ‘between’ sexes (Females selecting males)

Preferred female strategy

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6
Q

Explain why inter-sexual selection is the preferred female strategy

A

‘Quality over quantity’
Females make a greater investment of time before and after birth, therefore are choosier and seek a Male who will provide a healthy offspring and supporting resources

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7
Q

What impact does the ‘runaway process’/inter-sexual selection have on mating behaviour

A

Preference of both sexes will determine the attributes that are passed on. E.g. Height which means taller males in the future

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8
Q

What is intra-sexual selection and which sex prefers this mating strat?

A

Selection of mates ‘within’ sexes (Males selecting females)

Prefered male strat

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9
Q

Why is intra-sexual selection the prefered male stratergy

A

Females are limited and choosey ∴ males must compete. Winner gets their traits passed on

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10
Q

Out of Intra-sexual and Inter-sexual mating which is the prefered male strategy

A

Intra-sexual
Think ‘a’ for m’a’le
and ‘e’ for f’e’male (2nd letter)

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11
Q

What is the impact on mating behaviour due to Intra-sexual mating?

A

Production of aggressive males as they are more likely to reproduce and preference for youthful and fertile women

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12
Q

A03: Sexual selection Research for anisogamy

A

Strength: Survey asking 10,000+ adults about partner preference found females prefer resource-related characteristics and men = reproductive capacity ∴ supports differences due to anisogamy and partner preference from social selection theory

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13
Q

A03: Sexual selection Research for interpersonal selection

A

Strength: Uni students asked to have sex with stranger. Found, no females agreed but 75% of men agreed ∴ supports idea that females are choosier and male strategy is ‘quantity over quality’

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14
Q

A03: Sexual selection Cultural influence

A

Strength: Preference changes over time due to social norms.e.g.China some preferences changed and some remained the same over 25yrs ∴ suggests evolutionary and cultural influences must be taken into account when explaining

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15
Q

A03: Sexual selection Waist-hip ratio

A

Strength: 0.7 ratio of waist-hip ratio is attractive bc signifies women is fertile and not preggo ∴ reflects evolutionary factors in reproductive behaviours via partner preference

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16
Q

A03: Sexual selection Lonely hearts research

A

Strength: US newspaper ads showed desired traits. Women offered physical beauty and youth. Men offered resources and sought youth ∴ support evolutionary suggestions that women seek resources and men seek reproductive fitness

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17
Q

What is self-disclosure?

A

The act of revealing intimate information to another person

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18
Q

What is Social Penetration theory(SPT)?

A

The gradual process of revealing your inner self to another person. In a romantic relationship it involves reciprocal exchange

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19
Q

Fill in the blank:

Penetration leads to ___________ , giving them a ______ understanding of each other

A

Penetration leads to development, giving them a deeper understanding of each other

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20
Q

According to the SPT, describe and explain the start of a relationship?

A

Breath is narrow bc too much information may be off-putting and ∴ may cause one person to end the relationship

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21
Q

According to the SPT, describe and explain the development of a relationship?

A

Level of depth increases, meaning more layers are gradually revealed ∴ likelihood of intimate info being revealed is increased

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22
Q

Asides from breath and depth, what other factor must there be in order for a relationship to develop

A

Reciprocity

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23
Q

Linking to self-disclosure, describe how reciprocity should be interpreted in a relationship,

A

Self-disclosure to be received hopefully sensitively and rewarding ∴ leading to further self-disclosure from other. (Balance)

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24
Q

A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Research evidence

A

Strength: strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction in hetro couples. use of self-disclosure = believed more to be satisfied ∴ supports idea that it’s a key concept.

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25
Q

A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Real-life application

A

Strength: 57%, Gay men and women reported self-disclosure as maintenance mechanism. If less skilled partners use this instead of small talk = deeper relation ∴ highlights importance of self-disclosure and how it can support problems in a relation

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26
Q

A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Cultural differences

A

Limitation: Individualistic culture = disclose more sexual thoughts, collectivist disclose less sexual.Both linked to disclosure but pattern is different ∴ SPT is limited to western cultures and cannot be generalised to other countries.

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27
Q

A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Link to breakdown

A

Limitation: Sometimes Breakdown categories as reduction of self-disclosure. Counter: Duck’s model suggests increase in order to save failing relation ∴ increase in disclosure doesn’t always lead to positive developments.

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28
Q

A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Correlation vs Causation

A

Limitation: Positive correlation between self-disclosure and satisfaction cannot be assumed to be causal ∴ research evidence provides limited support.

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29
Q

Define: Physical attractiveness

A

How appealing we find a person’s face.

An important factor in the formation of relationships. Usually a general agreement on what is considered physically attractive in a culture

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30
Q

Give 2 traits that would classify a person as more attractive

A
  • Symmetrical face

- Neotenous features

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31
Q

Why is a symmetrical face considered attractive?

A

It is a signal of honest genetic fitness ∴ likely to be passed on bc evolutionary trait makes us like attributes that signal high quality

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32
Q

Why are neotenous features considered attractive?

A

Thought to trigger protective and caring instincts(relation to the formation of attachment in infancy) suggested, features that strengthen attachment are evolutionary adaptation

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33
Q

How important is initial physical attractiveness in a relationship

A

Very, found to be an important feature before and after marriage.

34
Q

What is the halo effect?

A

Belief that we hold preconceived ideas about attributes of an attractive person .e.g. What is beautiful is good

35
Q

Describe the halo effect on attractive people

A

Attractive people were rated as kind,strong,sociable and successful compared to unattractive people

36
Q

What is the matching hypothesis?

A

Belief that we do not select the most attractive partner but instead select partners of similar levels of attractiveness to ourselves

37
Q

Why does the matching hypothesis suggest we search for people of similar attractiveness?

A

We all seek most attractive mates for evolutionary,social,psychological and cultural reasons. But it is balanced by the fear of rejection ∴ we compromise

38
Q

A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research support for Halo effect

A

Strength: Physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgeable and competent. Even suggested politicians were voted based on looks ∴ shows how the halo effect can be observed in daily life.

39
Q

A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Individual differences

A

Limitation: ppl who scored high on MACHO(sexist attitude) scale = more influenced by physical attractiveness and vice versa ∴ shows how physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors and maynot be a significant factor for all.

40
Q

A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research support for Matching hypothesis

A

Limitation: OG study failed to support theory, they just went for most attractive. But, Meta-analysis of ‘real life’ found a big correlation in ratings of attractions between them. These findings from more realistic studies support theory even though OG didn’t

41
Q

A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Cultural differences

A

Strength: White,asian,hispanic males rated large eyes, small nose… as attractive. US and Korean rated attractive people to be more trustworthy,mature,kind…. ∴ suggests attraction is culturally independant and has evolutionary roots

42
Q

A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research evidence for the matching hypothesis (regarding online dating)

A

Limitation: Online dater prefer more attractive partners, self-attraction not considered. Strength of this bc it used real-life dating choices ∴ good validity. Possibility that matching hypothesis no longer explains attractiveness in a useful way`

43
Q

What is the purpose of the filter theory?

A

An explanation of relationship formation in terms of attitudes and personalities

44
Q

State the 3 stages of the filter theory (1st to 3rd)

A

1st - Social demography
2nd - SImilarity in attitudes
3rd - Complementarity

45
Q

Define: demography

A

Features that describe populations

46
Q

What is the difference between social demography and demography?

A

Social demography includes geographical location and social class

47
Q

What does the 1st filter (social demography) in the filter theory suggest?

A
  • More likely to have meaningful interactions with people who are physically close and share similar features.
  • Anyone who is too different(far away, upper class) is filtered out as a potential partner
48
Q

What does the 2nd filter (similarity in attitudes) in the filter theory suggest?

A

Similar beliefs and values are important to development of a relationship(under 18 months)
-bc agreeing on basic values promotes better communication and self-disclosure

49
Q

State a central idea/’law’ of the 2nd stage of the filter theory

A

Law of attraction, Similarities in attitude causes mutual attraction

50
Q

What does the 3rd filter (complementarity) in the filter theory suggest?

A

-Partners meet each other needs by complementing any traits the other lacks ∴
-gives off a sense of togetherness
(most important in later stages of a relationship)

51
Q

A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Research support

A

Strength: Assumes key values which has face validity(makes sense) that similarity is more important at the beginning and complementary is more important as time passes ∴ supports 2 filters and has real life survey support

52
Q

A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Failure to replicate

A

Limitation: Social change and difficulties in measuring a relationship = no replication.e.g. 18+ months was assumed to be more committed ∴ applicability to other cultures and relations is questionable

53
Q

A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Direction of cause and effect

A

Limitation: OG suggests law of attraction, however causality maybe wrong. Longitudinal studies show partners become more similar overtime (attitude alignment + emotional convergence) ∴ suggests similarities are an effect of cohabiting and not a cause

54
Q

A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Temporal validity

A

Limitation: Intro of online dating = social demography is less important. Theory’s model doesn’t account for this ∴ social changes questions usuablity /validity of filter theory as a factor in attraction

55
Q

A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Complementary or Similarity?

A

Limitation: Complementary is not a feature in all relationships, similarity increases over time, suggests the 3rd filter may not be reached in all relationships ∴ validity of theory is questioned

56
Q

What is the Social exchange theory(SET)?

A

A theory of how relationships form and develop. It assumes relationships are guided by the minimax principle (economic terms)

57
Q

How is satisfaction measured in the social exchange theory?

A

perceived profits minus costs

58
Q

Give some examples of costs in a relationship according to the SET

A

loss of time, stress

59
Q

Give some examples of rewards in a relationship according to the SET

A

Sex, companionship , praise

60
Q

What are the key concepts in SET excluding the minimax principle

A

Comparison level(CL) and comparison level for alternatives(CLalt)

61
Q

What is the Comparison level in SET?

A

-A measure of profit(judgement of reward level we expect) which is determined by social norms and past experiences.

62
Q

What is the Comparison level for alternatives?

A

Consideration whether we might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship(assuming only 1 partner is allowed)

63
Q

Describe and briefly explain the 4 stages of relationship development according to the SET?

A

1-Sampling stage = Exploring costs and rewards
2-Bargaining stage = Negotiate costs and rewards
3-Commitment stage = Stability bc cost decrease and
rewards increase
4-Institutionalisation stage = Norms established

64
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Assumptions of all relationships

A

Limitation: Not all relations are exchange based
-Exchange(work colleagues) = profit involved
-Communal(romantic) = profit not thought about
bc tallying at start = possible suspicion and distaste ∴ theory is not a suitable explanation for all relationship types

65
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Direction of cause and effect

A

Limitation: ppl in committed relationships = less time looking at images of attractive ppl which is a good indicator when check 2 months later ∴ argued that we only consider profit until after we are dissatisfied, not lack of profit leading to dissatisfaction.

66
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Ignores equity

A

Limitation: Theory focuses on CL and ignores equity. Couples in equity relationship found more satisfied than those over or under-benefitting ∴ limited explanation and is only supported by a proportion of research findings

67
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Measuring concepts

A

Limitation: Tends to ‘operationalise’ rewards and costs superficially, in reality it is all subjective. Also unclear at what levels CL and CLalt dissatisfaction threatens a relation ∴ inability to quantify key concepts = hard to produce valid research support.

68
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Artificial research

A

Limitation: Support comes from lab studies consists of ‘games’ with 2 strangers who are just together for the study. In comparison, realistic studies have less support for SET ∴ Support is weakened due to lack of validity of studies and that realistic studies fail to support assertions

69
Q

Define: Equity

A

Fairness of the ratios, levels of profits are roughly the same

70
Q

What happens to a partner when they are underbenefitting according to the equity theory?

A

Least satisfied, feelings maybe evident in anger and resentment

71
Q

What happens to a partner when they are overbenefitting according to the equity theory?

A

Some dissatisfaction, possible discomfort, shame or guilt

72
Q

What are the consequences of inequity?

A

Dissatisfaction, the greater the inequity the greater the dissatisfaction.
-Predicted a strong positive correlation between the 2

73
Q

What does the equity theory suggest about level of equity in a relationship as it develops?

A

Perfectly normal to give more than you receive at the start, however if it continues then satisfaction levels will fall

74
Q

How can you deal with inequity?

A
  • Behavioural or

- Cognitive = perceptions of cost and rewards may change

75
Q

Describe the possible negative effects of cognitive changes in relationship regarding levels of profit?

A

Actual abuse can become accepted as the norm for a relationship.e.g.cruelty as a form of rough treatment for your own good

76
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Research support

A

Strength: Survey of newly wed-couples who considered their relationship equitable = more satisfied in comparison to under/over benefitting ∴ suggests profit is not the key issue and this supports key concepts ∴ good validity as an explanation

77
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Cultural influences

A

Limitation: Individualistic = most satisfied when equity
Collectivist = most satisfied when over-benefitting. Consist between gender ∴ suggests its a consistent socially rather than gender-based ∴concepts is not supported in all cultures and is limited

78
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Individual differences

A

Limitation: Some ppl are less sensitive to equity than others. Some ppl are benevolent = more happy to give than get. Some ppl feel more entitled(beliefs) to deserve more without guilt ∴ shows it is far from universal, desire for equity is subjective

79
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory application to all types of relationships

A

Limitation: Suggested a need to differentiate between types of relations. Theory is central in some friendships, limited support for others(e.g.romantic) ∴ maybe a better explanation for other forms of relations

80
Q

A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Contradictory research

A

Limitation: Longitudinal studies show equity did not increase with time. No distinction between ended relations and survived ones. Other factors such as self-disclosure seemed more important ∴ a strong criticism bc was based on real couples over a period of time

81
Q

Rusbult’s investment model

A

-

AQA A level Psychology (11 decks)

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