P3: Relationships Flashcards
What is sexual selection
Attributes/behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over time
What is human reproductive behaviour
Behaviours which relate to opportunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chance of our genes
What is anisogamy
differences between male and female sex cells
Name some key differences between the Male and female anisogamy(sex cells)
Male: small,mobile,continuously produced
Female: large,static,limited production
What is inter-sexual selection and which sex prefers this mating strategy
Selection of mates ‘between’ sexes (Females selecting males)
Preferred female strategy
Explain why inter-sexual selection is the preferred female strategy
‘Quality over quantity’
Females make a greater investment of time before and after birth, therefore are choosier and seek a Male who will provide a healthy offspring and supporting resources
What impact does the ‘runaway process’/inter-sexual selection have on mating behaviour
Preference of both sexes will determine the attributes that are passed on. E.g. Height which means taller males in the future
What is intra-sexual selection and which sex prefers this mating strat?
Selection of mates ‘within’ sexes (Males selecting females)
Prefered male strat
Why is intra-sexual selection the prefered male stratergy
Females are limited and choosey ∴ males must compete. Winner gets their traits passed on
Out of Intra-sexual and Inter-sexual mating which is the prefered male strategy
Intra-sexual
Think ‘a’ for m’a’le
and ‘e’ for f’e’male (2nd letter)
What is the impact on mating behaviour due to Intra-sexual mating?
Production of aggressive males as they are more likely to reproduce and preference for youthful and fertile women
A03: Sexual selection Research for anisogamy
Strength: Survey asking 10,000+ adults about partner preference found females prefer resource-related characteristics and men = reproductive capacity ∴ supports differences due to anisogamy and partner preference from social selection theory
A03: Sexual selection Research for interpersonal selection
Strength: Uni students asked to have sex with stranger. Found, no females agreed but 75% of men agreed ∴ supports idea that females are choosier and male strategy is ‘quantity over quality’
A03: Sexual selection Cultural influence
Strength: Preference changes over time due to social norms.e.g.China some preferences changed and some remained the same over 25yrs ∴ suggests evolutionary and cultural influences must be taken into account when explaining
A03: Sexual selection Waist-hip ratio
Strength: 0.7 ratio of waist-hip ratio is attractive bc signifies women is fertile and not preggo ∴ reflects evolutionary factors in reproductive behaviours via partner preference
A03: Sexual selection Lonely hearts research
Strength: US newspaper ads showed desired traits. Women offered physical beauty and youth. Men offered resources and sought youth ∴ support evolutionary suggestions that women seek resources and men seek reproductive fitness
What is self-disclosure?
The act of revealing intimate information to another person
What is Social Penetration theory(SPT)?
The gradual process of revealing your inner self to another person. In a romantic relationship it involves reciprocal exchange
Fill in the blank:
Penetration leads to ___________ , giving them a ______ understanding of each other
Penetration leads to development, giving them a deeper understanding of each other
According to the SPT, describe and explain the start of a relationship?
Breath is narrow bc too much information may be off-putting and ∴ may cause one person to end the relationship
According to the SPT, describe and explain the development of a relationship?
Level of depth increases, meaning more layers are gradually revealed ∴ likelihood of intimate info being revealed is increased
Asides from breath and depth, what other factor must there be in order for a relationship to develop
Reciprocity
Linking to self-disclosure, describe how reciprocity should be interpreted in a relationship,
Self-disclosure to be received hopefully sensitively and rewarding ∴ leading to further self-disclosure from other. (Balance)
A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Research evidence
Strength: strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction in hetro couples. use of self-disclosure = believed more to be satisfied ∴ supports idea that it’s a key concept.
A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Real-life application
Strength: 57%, Gay men and women reported self-disclosure as maintenance mechanism. If less skilled partners use this instead of small talk = deeper relation ∴ highlights importance of self-disclosure and how it can support problems in a relation
A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Cultural differences
Limitation: Individualistic culture = disclose more sexual thoughts, collectivist disclose less sexual.Both linked to disclosure but pattern is different ∴ SPT is limited to western cultures and cannot be generalised to other countries.
A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Link to breakdown
Limitation: Sometimes Breakdown categories as reduction of self-disclosure. Counter: Duck’s model suggests increase in order to save failing relation ∴ increase in disclosure doesn’t always lead to positive developments.
A03: Factors affecting Self disclosure Correlation vs Causation
Limitation: Positive correlation between self-disclosure and satisfaction cannot be assumed to be causal ∴ research evidence provides limited support.
Define: Physical attractiveness
How appealing we find a person’s face.
An important factor in the formation of relationships. Usually a general agreement on what is considered physically attractive in a culture
Give 2 traits that would classify a person as more attractive
- Symmetrical face
- Neotenous features
Why is a symmetrical face considered attractive?
It is a signal of honest genetic fitness ∴ likely to be passed on bc evolutionary trait makes us like attributes that signal high quality
Why are neotenous features considered attractive?
Thought to trigger protective and caring instincts(relation to the formation of attachment in infancy) suggested, features that strengthen attachment are evolutionary adaptation
How important is initial physical attractiveness in a relationship
Very, found to be an important feature before and after marriage.
What is the halo effect?
Belief that we hold preconceived ideas about attributes of an attractive person .e.g. What is beautiful is good
Describe the halo effect on attractive people
Attractive people were rated as kind,strong,sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
What is the matching hypothesis?
Belief that we do not select the most attractive partner but instead select partners of similar levels of attractiveness to ourselves
Why does the matching hypothesis suggest we search for people of similar attractiveness?
We all seek most attractive mates for evolutionary,social,psychological and cultural reasons. But it is balanced by the fear of rejection ∴ we compromise
A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research support for Halo effect
Strength: Physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgeable and competent. Even suggested politicians were voted based on looks ∴ shows how the halo effect can be observed in daily life.
A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Individual differences
Limitation: ppl who scored high on MACHO(sexist attitude) scale = more influenced by physical attractiveness and vice versa ∴ shows how physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors and maynot be a significant factor for all.
A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research support for Matching hypothesis
Limitation: OG study failed to support theory, they just went for most attractive. But, Meta-analysis of ‘real life’ found a big correlation in ratings of attractions between them. These findings from more realistic studies support theory even though OG didn’t
A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Cultural differences
Strength: White,asian,hispanic males rated large eyes, small nose… as attractive. US and Korean rated attractive people to be more trustworthy,mature,kind…. ∴ suggests attraction is culturally independant and has evolutionary roots
A03: Factors affecting physical attractiveness Research evidence for the matching hypothesis (regarding online dating)
Limitation: Online dater prefer more attractive partners, self-attraction not considered. Strength of this bc it used real-life dating choices ∴ good validity. Possibility that matching hypothesis no longer explains attractiveness in a useful way`
What is the purpose of the filter theory?
An explanation of relationship formation in terms of attitudes and personalities
State the 3 stages of the filter theory (1st to 3rd)
1st - Social demography
2nd - SImilarity in attitudes
3rd - Complementarity
Define: demography
Features that describe populations
What is the difference between social demography and demography?
Social demography includes geographical location and social class
What does the 1st filter (social demography) in the filter theory suggest?
- More likely to have meaningful interactions with people who are physically close and share similar features.
- Anyone who is too different(far away, upper class) is filtered out as a potential partner
What does the 2nd filter (similarity in attitudes) in the filter theory suggest?
Similar beliefs and values are important to development of a relationship(under 18 months)
-bc agreeing on basic values promotes better communication and self-disclosure
State a central idea/’law’ of the 2nd stage of the filter theory
Law of attraction, Similarities in attitude causes mutual attraction
What does the 3rd filter (complementarity) in the filter theory suggest?
-Partners meet each other needs by complementing any traits the other lacks ∴
-gives off a sense of togetherness
(most important in later stages of a relationship)
A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Research support
Strength: Assumes key values which has face validity(makes sense) that similarity is more important at the beginning and complementary is more important as time passes ∴ supports 2 filters and has real life survey support
A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Failure to replicate
Limitation: Social change and difficulties in measuring a relationship = no replication.e.g. 18+ months was assumed to be more committed ∴ applicability to other cultures and relations is questionable
A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Direction of cause and effect
Limitation: OG suggests law of attraction, however causality maybe wrong. Longitudinal studies show partners become more similar overtime (attitude alignment + emotional convergence) ∴ suggests similarities are an effect of cohabiting and not a cause
A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Temporal validity
Limitation: Intro of online dating = social demography is less important. Theory’s model doesn’t account for this ∴ social changes questions usuablity /validity of filter theory as a factor in attraction
A03: Factors affecting attraction: Filter theory Complementary or Similarity?
Limitation: Complementary is not a feature in all relationships, similarity increases over time, suggests the 3rd filter may not be reached in all relationships ∴ validity of theory is questioned
What is the Social exchange theory(SET)?
A theory of how relationships form and develop. It assumes relationships are guided by the minimax principle (economic terms)
How is satisfaction measured in the social exchange theory?
perceived profits minus costs
Give some examples of costs in a relationship according to the SET
loss of time, stress
Give some examples of rewards in a relationship according to the SET
Sex, companionship , praise
What are the key concepts in SET excluding the minimax principle
Comparison level(CL) and comparison level for alternatives(CLalt)
What is the Comparison level in SET?
-A measure of profit(judgement of reward level we expect) which is determined by social norms and past experiences.
What is the Comparison level for alternatives?
Consideration whether we might gain more rewards and endure fewer costs in a different relationship(assuming only 1 partner is allowed)
Describe and briefly explain the 4 stages of relationship development according to the SET?
1-Sampling stage = Exploring costs and rewards
2-Bargaining stage = Negotiate costs and rewards
3-Commitment stage = Stability bc cost decrease and
rewards increase
4-Institutionalisation stage = Norms established
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Assumptions of all relationships
Limitation: Not all relations are exchange based
-Exchange(work colleagues) = profit involved
-Communal(romantic) = profit not thought about
bc tallying at start = possible suspicion and distaste ∴ theory is not a suitable explanation for all relationship types
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Direction of cause and effect
Limitation: ppl in committed relationships = less time looking at images of attractive ppl which is a good indicator when check 2 months later ∴ argued that we only consider profit until after we are dissatisfied, not lack of profit leading to dissatisfaction.
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Ignores equity
Limitation: Theory focuses on CL and ignores equity. Couples in equity relationship found more satisfied than those over or under-benefitting ∴ limited explanation and is only supported by a proportion of research findings
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Measuring concepts
Limitation: Tends to ‘operationalise’ rewards and costs superficially, in reality it is all subjective. Also unclear at what levels CL and CLalt dissatisfaction threatens a relation ∴ inability to quantify key concepts = hard to produce valid research support.
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: SET Artificial research
Limitation: Support comes from lab studies consists of ‘games’ with 2 strangers who are just together for the study. In comparison, realistic studies have less support for SET ∴ Support is weakened due to lack of validity of studies and that realistic studies fail to support assertions
Define: Equity
Fairness of the ratios, levels of profits are roughly the same
What happens to a partner when they are underbenefitting according to the equity theory?
Least satisfied, feelings maybe evident in anger and resentment
What happens to a partner when they are overbenefitting according to the equity theory?
Some dissatisfaction, possible discomfort, shame or guilt
What are the consequences of inequity?
Dissatisfaction, the greater the inequity the greater the dissatisfaction.
-Predicted a strong positive correlation between the 2
What does the equity theory suggest about level of equity in a relationship as it develops?
Perfectly normal to give more than you receive at the start, however if it continues then satisfaction levels will fall
How can you deal with inequity?
- Behavioural or
- Cognitive = perceptions of cost and rewards may change
Describe the possible negative effects of cognitive changes in relationship regarding levels of profit?
Actual abuse can become accepted as the norm for a relationship.e.g.cruelty as a form of rough treatment for your own good
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Research support
Strength: Survey of newly wed-couples who considered their relationship equitable = more satisfied in comparison to under/over benefitting ∴ suggests profit is not the key issue and this supports key concepts ∴ good validity as an explanation
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Cultural influences
Limitation: Individualistic = most satisfied when equity
Collectivist = most satisfied when over-benefitting. Consist between gender ∴ suggests its a consistent socially rather than gender-based ∴concepts is not supported in all cultures and is limited
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Individual differences
Limitation: Some ppl are less sensitive to equity than others. Some ppl are benevolent = more happy to give than get. Some ppl feel more entitled(beliefs) to deserve more without guilt ∴ shows it is far from universal, desire for equity is subjective
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory application to all types of relationships
Limitation: Suggested a need to differentiate between types of relations. Theory is central in some friendships, limited support for others(e.g.romantic) ∴ maybe a better explanation for other forms of relations
A03: Theories of romantic relationships: Equity theory Contradictory research
Limitation: Longitudinal studies show equity did not increase with time. No distinction between ended relations and survived ones. Other factors such as self-disclosure seemed more important ∴ a strong criticism bc was based on real couples over a period of time
Rusbult’s investment model
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