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AQA A level Psychology > P3: Forensic Psychology > Flashcards

P3: Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is offender profiling/criminal profiling

A

Behavioural and analytical tool aimed to predict and profile characteristics of criminals

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2
Q

What is the Top-down approach/topology approach

A

(American) Working down to matching evidence to a pre-existing template. Classifies murderers or rapists into 2 categories (Organised or disorganised)

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3
Q

What idea is organised and disorganised distinction is based on

A

Having a signature ‘way of working’(Modus operandi) that correlates to a particular set of psychological and social characteristics

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4
Q

What are characteristics of an organised offender

A

Evidence of planning, High levels of control, Above-average IQ, usually married(sexually competent), have a ‘type’ they target

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5
Q

What are characteristics of a disorganised offender

A

Little evidence of planning, little control, below-average IQ unemployed,history of failed relationships, Shows signs of a spontaneous act

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6
Q

What are the four main stages in constructing an FBI profile

A
  • Data assimilation(profilers reviews the evidence)
  • Crime scene classification(organised or disorganised)
  • Crime reconstruction(hypothesis of sequence of events…)
  • Profile generation(hypothesis related to the likely offender)
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7
Q

A03: Top-down application

A

Limitation: common offences do not lend themselves well, best suited for big crimes scenes that reveal important details about the suspect.

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8
Q

A03: Top-down modelling based on

A

Limitation: based on outdated models of personality, assumes offenders have a consistent motivation and behaviour. No external factors considered(e.g.situation) ∴ poor validity when trying to predict offenders next move

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9
Q

A03: Top-down evidence of categories

A

Limitation: Little support for ‘disorganised offender’ from data analysed using ‘small space technique’.Findings found evidence of organised but not disorganised offenders ∴ undermines the whole system.

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10
Q

A03: Top-down complexity/simplicity

A

Limitation: Too simplistic, suggested we focus on motivation of killers not type because behaviours of organised and disorganised are not mutually exclusive therefore has prompted researchers to propose more detailed topological models

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11
Q

A03: Top-down original sample

A

Limitation: original sample only interviewed 36 killers, therefore is unrepresentative. Also it is not appropriate to rely on self-report data with convicted killers when constructing a classification system

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12
Q

What is the bottom-up approach

A

(British)Working up from evidence collected at the crime scene and then developing a hypothesis about their motivations, characteristics(Data driven)

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13
Q

What is investigative psychology

A

A type of bottom-up profiling that matches details of crime scenes to a statistical database in order to apply psychological theories, which allow you to predict the next offence

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14
Q

State and explain the central concept of investigative psychology

A

Interpersonal coherence- The idea that the way an offender behaves at the crime scene may reflect behaviour in everyday situations

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15
Q

What is forensic awareness

A

Individuals who have been subjected to police interrogation in the past which makes them mindful about ‘covering their tracks’

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16
Q

What is geological profiling

A

A type of bottom-up profiling based on the principle of spatial consistency, that an offenders base of operations can be revealed by the location of their previous crimes

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17
Q

What is crime mapping

A

Information from the location of linked crime scenes which allows informed decisions about their base of operation and modus operandi

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18
Q

Define jeopardy surface

A

An educated guess on where the offender will strike next

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19
Q

What is the difference between a Marauder and commuter

A

Marauder- Operates in close proximity to their home base

commuter- Travelled a distance away from their usual residence

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20
Q

What is circle theory and how does it help

A

A circle created around their usual residence from a series of offending.Their ‘spatial decision making’ can provide insight into the nature of the offence

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21
Q

A03: bottom-up evidence

A

Strength: Using small space analysis on 66 sexual assault cases, a correlation was found across patterns of behaviour which were deemed common. Can lead to an understanding of how behaviour may changes with offences, showing how statistical techniques can be applied

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22
Q

A03: bottom-up geographical profiling

A

Strength: Information collected from 120 (serial)murder cases showed the location of body disposal were in difference sites, but created a centre of gravity around their base.(Done using small space analysis), therefore spatial info can be a key factor in locating the base of an offender

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23
Q

A03: bottom-up The basis(foundation)

A

Strength: Has a scientific basis, is more objective n scientific than the top down(e.g.less speculation), Geographical,biographical and psychological data can assist. Therefore approach has many utilities which can aid with all aspects of the judicial process

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24
Q

A03: bottom-up application

A

Strength: (application)Can be applied to a wide range of offences e.g. small space analysis can be used for theft …to rape and murder

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25
Q

A03: bottom-up profiling results

A

Limitation: mixed results for profiling as there has been a significant of failures in the past.A study surveyed 48 police forces and found roughly 83% of info provided by profiler is considered ‘useful’, but only 3% leads to accurate identification of offender

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26
Q

What did the atavistic form propose

A

Lombroso’s historical approach laid foundation of profiling. As he suggested that criminals were ‘genetic throwbacks’(primitive sub-species) biologically different from non criminals

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27
Q

How did Lombroso view criminals

A

Lacking evolutionary development , savage and untamed nature = impossible to adapt to a civilised society there would turn to crime.
(Innate tendency and suggested it’s not the criminals fault)

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28
Q

What are some Atavistic characteristic both physical and emotions

A

Physical - narrow, slipping brow

  • strong prominent jaw
  • high cheekbones
  • facial asymmetry
  • extra toe, nipples, fingers
  • dark skin

Emotional - insensitivity to pain

  • criminal slang
  • tattoos
  • unemployment
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29
Q

What are some ‘markers’/traits of a murder according to the atavistic form

A

bloodshot eyes,curly hair, long ears

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30
Q

Detail Lombroso’s research he did for the atavistic form

A

Examined facial and cranial features from Italian convicts, 383 dead,3839 alive(over 4000) = conclusion 40% of criminal acts can be accounted for by people with atavistic characteristics

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31
Q

A03: Atavistic form criminology

A

Strength: Held as ‘father of modern criminology’ due to large contribution to criminology. shifted the emphasis in research away from moralistic, also heralded the beginning of criminal profiling

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32
Q

A03: Atavistic form Racial

A

Limitation: Racial undertones of work, many features identified are most likely found among african descent. Also his work may unintentionally support the ‘eugenic philosophies’(belief that certains group should not bread bc they are inferior),therefore racial undertones overshadows his work

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33
Q

A03: Atavistic form Evidence

A

Limitation: Contradictory evidence for atavistic form, a study compared 3000 criminals and non criminals = no evidence that there is a distinct type of physical features. Only slight support for a lower IQ, therefore questions the key element in his theory.

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34
Q

A03: Atavistic form Lombroso’s control group

A

Limitation: Poor control in his research due to no comparison to a control group, also many criminals studied had psychological disorders which could act as confounding variables

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35
Q

A03: Atavistic form Causation

A

Limitation: Causation is a problem, as having atavistic features doesn’t mean it is the cause of offending. Other factors can influence facial and cranial features(e.g.poverty) Although, Lombroso did later acknowledge that criminals could be made as well as born one

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36
Q

What do genetic explanations for crime suggest

A

Would-be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes which predisposes them to commit crime.

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37
Q

How does twin studies illustrate the importance genes as an explanation for offending

A

A study was conducted investigating 13MZ and 17DZ(13 identical) twins where one of them had spent time in prison. Found that 10 of the MZ had a co-twin in prison, while only 2 of the DZ did. A more recent study conducted found a concordance rate of 33% for MZ and 12% for DZ therefore supporting the view that offending may have a genetic compound.

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38
Q

How does adoption studies support genetic explanations for offending

A
  • Adopted children with a biological parent who have a criminal record has a 50% risk of having a criminal record themselves by 18
  • Adopted children without parents who have a criminal record only have a 5% risk
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39
Q

What two candidate genes discovered maybe associated with violent crime

A

MAOA- controls serotonin and dopamine which is linked to aggressive behaviour and CDH13- linked to substance abuse and ADHD. Having both is a high risk combo = 13 times more likely to have a history of violent disorder, however this research is still young/infancy and has not been replicated

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40
Q

What does the Diathesis-stress model suggest about genetic explanations for offending

A

If genes have some influence on offending it must be partly due to the environment, a combination of - genetic predisposition(make-up) and a biological or psychological ‘trigger’

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41
Q

What is a neural explanation

A

Any explanation of behaviour in terms functions of the brain and the nervous system.

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42
Q

What disorder has most neural studies been conducted on and why

A

Antisocial personality disorder (APD) bc it is associated with a lack of empathy which many criminals suffer from

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43
Q

Studies conducted have shown what about the prefrontal cortex ,particularly in APD

A

Reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex and an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter

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44
Q

Are APD individuals able to feel empathy

A

Yes, but it is suggested that they have a neural ‘switch’ that turns on and off, in a normally-functioning brain this is permanently on

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45
Q

What neuron is empathy controlled by

A

mirror neurons

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46
Q

A03: Genetic and neural explanations methodology with twins studies

A

Limitation: Twin studies were poorly controlled, as judgements were made based on appearance if they were MZ or DZ. Concordance rates maybe shared bc they were raised in the same environment therefore it could be due to shared experiences not genes, therefore lots of confounding variables mean twin studies lack validity

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47
Q

A03: Genetic and neural explanations diathesis-stress model of crime

A

Strength: support for the diathesis-stress model… Studies found if no adoptive or biological parents had convictions, adoptees had convictions = 13.5% had convictions. If either bio or adoptive parents had convictions = 20%. Both adoptees and bio had convitcions = 24.5% had convitons, therefore suggests both environment and genetics influence criminality

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48
Q

A03: Genetic and neural explanations methodology with adoption studies

A

Limitation: complicated by the fact many children experience late adoption, meaning they had/have contact with biological parents, therefore hard to assess the environmental impact of the biological parents

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49
Q

A03: Genetic and neural explanations biologically reductionist

A

Limitation: criminality is complex therefore reducing to a genetic or neutral level is wrong, In isolation these explanations is too simplistic. Crime runs in family but so does mental illness,poverty….

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50
Q

A03: Genetic and neural explanations biologically determinist

A

Limitation: Legal issues appear as we believe criminals act in free will, therefore a criminal gene complicates it. Only in extreme cases of mental illness can someone claim they weren’t acting with free will. Therefore raises ethical questions about what should we do about thoses suspected to have the gene.

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51
Q

What are the three personality dimensions of Eysenck’s theory

A

Introversion - Extraversion (E)
Neuroticism - Stability (N)
Psychoticism - Socialisation (P)

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52
Q

What is biological basis in Eysenck’s theory

A

Suggested that personality traits are biological and based on our inherited nervous system.

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53
Q

What is the biological feature associated with extroverts in Eysenck’s theory

A

Underactive nervous system therefore seek excitement and stimulation so they engage in risk-taking behaviours

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54
Q

What is the biological feature associated with neurotic individuals in Eysenck’s theory

A

High levels of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, therefore respond fast to threats(fight or flight)
It means they are more nervous,jumpy,overanxious and difficult to predict.

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55
Q

What is the biological feature associated with psychotic individuals in Eysenck’s theory

A

Higher levels of testosterone meaning they are cold,unemotional and prove to aggression.

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56
Q

According to Eysenck’s theory what is the criminal personality type a combination of

A

Neurotic extravert + high psychoticism(ENP)

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57
Q

What role does socialisation play in the criminal personality according to Eysenck

A

Criminal behaviour is seen as developed immaturely and they are only concerned with immediate gratification bc they act impatient and cannot wait for things,
Through socialisation children are taught to delay gratification and become more socially oriented. But Eysenck believed people with high E and N scores would find it hard to be conditioned, therefore they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses.

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58
Q

How can you measure the criminal personality

A

Eysenck developed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), a psychological test which locates respondents along the E and N dimensions to determine personality type. Later a scale was added to measure psychoticism.

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59
Q

What is a central concept of Eysenck’s theory

A

The notion that personality can be measured

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60
Q

A03: Eysenck’s theory evidence

A

Strength: When comparing 2070 male prisoners to a control of 2422 = higher scores on P,E,N. However, when the studies were reviewed = found that high P scores, but not on E or N + little evidence of consistent differences in EEG(measures cortical arousal)between introverts and extroverts

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61
Q

A03: Eysenck’s theory Criminal types?

A

Limitation: The idea that there is one criminal type that explains all is criticised, suggested that based on offence and timing there will be several distinct types of offender, Digman’s five factor model suggests 3 xtra factors = openness,agreeableness and conscientiousness.therefore more than just E and N factor contribute

62
Q

A03: Eysenck’s theory Cultural bias

A

Limitation: studies conducted in NY on hispanic and african-americans in maximum security found that all 6 groups (divided by criminal history and offence) were less extroverted than a non-criminal control group = questions generalisability and temporal validity

63
Q

A03: Eysenck’s theory measurement of personality

A

Limitation: Assumes you can measure personality reducing it to a score. Some believe there is no such thing as personality as a stable entity,instead we adopt different personalities in different contexts,therefore undermines concept of a stable criminal personality

64
Q

A03: Eysenck’s theory biological approaches

A

Strength: FIts other biological approaches as it recognises personality may have a genetic basis(nervous system),but due to this it does suffer from limitations of genetic and neural explanations,therefore can be criticised as biologically reductionist and determinist

65
Q

What did Kohlberg propose

A

Peoples decision and judgements about right and wrong can be identified by in his stage theory of moral development

66
Q

What level of moral reasoning did Kohlberg say criminals and non-criminals were at

A

Preconventional level - criminals

Conventional level and beyond - non-criminals

67
Q

What does research show about offenders in Kohlberg’s theory

A

They are egocentric and display poorer social perspective taking skills compared to individuals who reason at higher levels = more sympathy, honesty, generosity and non-violence

68
Q

What is cognitive distortions

A

Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that means we perceive ourselves, people, world around us inaccurately and usually negatively.

69
Q

2 examples of cognitive distortions

A

Hostile attribution bias and minimalisation

70
Q

What is Hostile attribution bias and how does it link to offenders

A

The tendency to judge a ambiguous situation as threatening and research found that offenders were more likely to misread non-aggressive cues triggering a disproportionate violent response

71
Q

What is Minimalisation/minimisation and how does it link to offenders

A

Downplaying the significance of a crime in order to reduce a person’s sense of guilt. This is particularly common in sex offenders, found that in a sample 36% claimed the victim gave consent

72
Q

A03: Level of moral reasoning evidence

A

Strength: Using the SRM-SF(a scale with 11 moral dilemma related questions) found that offenders displayed less mature reasoning than non-offenders, also suggested that lack of role play in childhood prevents the child from developing moral reasoning.

73
Q

A03: Level of moral reasoning Alternative theories

A

Limitation: Revised version of Kohlberg’s theory has mature and immature guided by conscience, reward of punishment and avoidance of punishment. Also argued that post- conventional level should be abandoned bc it is culturally biased towards western culture and doesn’t represent a natural maturational stage

74
Q

A03: Level of moral reasoning Application

A

Strength: Application of cognitive distortion research. CBT helps offenders face up to their behaviour with a less distorted view, reducing denial and minimalisation which is correlated with reduced reoffending rates

75
Q

A03: Level of moral reasoning Individual differences

A

Limitation: Those who commit crime for financial gain= more likely to show levels of pre-conventional reasoning compared to those who commit impulsive crimes. Pre-conventional is associated with those who believe they can avoid punishment. Therefore intelligence maybe a better predictor of criminality

76
Q

A03: Level of moral reasoning descriptive or explanative

A

Limitation: descriptive not explanatory, lacks explanation strength of why an offender committed a crime originally. Cognitive explanations are essentially after the fact theories

77
Q

Define differential association theory

A

Suggests that individuals learn values,attitudes,techniques and motivation for criminal behaviour through interactions with others -Sutherland

78
Q

Describe the scientific basis in Differential association theory

A

Sutherland attempted to develop a set of scientific principles, believing there were clear cause and effect between backgrounds of those who become criminals

79
Q

According to the differential association theory how is crime learned

A

Through interactions with significant others
Criminality arises from 2 factors:
-Learned attitudes towards crime
-Learning of specific criminal acts

80
Q

Describe the differential association theory determines whether a person will an offender or not

A

Exposure to a group also means exposure to certain criminal values and attitudes. These values will either be pro-crime or anti-crime. Whichever attitudes outweighs the other determines whether they will go on to offend or not

81
Q

If we know the total anti-crime and pro-crime values what can we do according to the differential association theory

A

Make a mathematical prediction about the likelihood of them committing a crime.

82
Q

What is the mathematical prediction in differential association theory biased on

A

The prediction is based on the knowledge of frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values.

83
Q

What does Sutherland suggest about why reoffending rates are so high

A

Socialisation in prison, we assume that inside prison inmates are exposed to pro-criminal attitudes and learn specific techniques

84
Q

A03: Differential association theory Explanation

A

Strength: Theory can account for crime in all sectors of society therefore helping our understanding.e.g. white-collar crime (corporate crime), a possible feature is that the middle-class social groups share deviant norms and values

85
Q

A03: Differential association theory shift in focus

A

Strength: Moved emphasis away from biological accounts and towards dysfunctional social circumstances. suggesting that the environment is to blame, not dysfunctional people. Therefore more desirable and realistic compared to eugenics or punishment = large contribution to criminology

86
Q

A03: Differential association theory Testing

A

Limitation: Hard to test as we are unclear how we can measure the number of pro or anti criminal acts, or at what point criminality is triggered. Therefore no satisfactory solution = less scientific credibility

87
Q

A03: Differential association theory Alternatives explanations

A

Limitation: Alternative explanations, rather than family attributes to crime which Sutherland suggests. We can also use genetic explanations.e.g. nature vs nurture of does criminality run in the family. Therefore hard to draw any conclusions from data about crime in families

88
Q

A03: Differential association theory Individual differences

A

Limitation: Overly environmental determinist, as it stereotypes people from impoverish backgrounds as unavoidably criminal. Therefore suggesting that pro-criminal values alone is enough to create a criminal, ignoring free will.

89
Q

What is the psychodynamic explanation of offending

A

Suggested that if the superego(guided by the morality principle) is somehow inadequate the id is given free rein and is not properly controlled, therefore criminal behaviour is inevitable

90
Q

What are the three types of inadequate superego

A
  • Weak superego
  • Deviant superego
  • over-harsh superego
91
Q

How is a weak superego formed and what does this mean

A

Absence of same-sex parent during phallic stage = child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego therefore no opportunity for identification

92
Q

How is a deviant superego formed and what does this mean

A

Child internalises immoral or deviant values. e.g. raised by a criminal father therefore less likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing

93
Q

What is a over-harsh superego

A

Excessively harsh or punishing meaning they are crippled by guilt and anxiety, therefore may cause the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego’s overwhelming need for punishment

94
Q

What does Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory say about criminal behaviour and offending

A

Warm and continuous relationship with a mother-figure is crucial for future relationships, well-being and development. Therefore loss of attachment could lead to affectionless psychopathy and increase likelihood of delinquency

95
Q

define delinquency

A

illegal action/not acceptable

96
Q

What evidence does Bowlby provide for his explanation of offending and describe it

A

44 juvenile thieves
-14 showed signs of affectionless psychopathy and 12 of them had experience prolonged separation in infancy. compared to the control (non-criminals)- only 2 had experienced prolonged separation therefore drew a conclusion that maternal deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy and delinquency

97
Q

A03: Psychodynamic explanations of offending Gender bias

A

Limitation: Assumes girls develop weak superego’s because they don’t experience castration anxiety therefore less need to identify with mum. Means females are more prone to criminal behaviour but prison population doesn’t support this

98
Q

A03: Psychodynamic explanations of offending Evidence

A

Limitation: Contradictory evidence e.g. little evidence that children raised without same-sex parent are less law abiding(against weak superego) ,Raised by deviant parents = maybe due to socialisation or genetics not a deviant superego, (Over-harsh) offenders often go through great lengths to conceal actions and avoid punishment

99
Q

A03: Psychodynamic explanations of offending Concepts

A

Limitation: Unconscious concepts= lack of falsifiability. Many concepts suggested are not open to empirical testing. therefore many of these theories are considered to be fake/pseudoscientific and contribute little to understanding crime

100
Q

A03: Psychodynamic explanations of offending Bowlby’s method

A

Limitation: Researcher bias as expectations may have influenced the responses of his interviewees, also he failed to draw a distinction between privation and deprivation. Privation is considered to be more dangerous and the thieves he studied suffered from privation and in some cases severe deprivations has had good outcomes provided they have good aftercare

101
Q

A03: Psychodynamic explanations of offending correlation or causation (Bowlby)

A

Limitation: correlations not causation, after analysing found that maternal deprivation is a poor predictor of future offending. No proof of a causal link, alternative theories explaining = genetics and differential association theory. Therefore any correlation found between maternal deprivation and criminality cannot be called causal

102
Q

What is custodial sentencing

A

Convicted offender spending time in a prison or a closed institution

103
Q

The four aims of custodial sentencing

A
  • Deterrence
  • Incapacitation
  • Retribution
  • Rehabilitation
104
Q

What is deterrence

A

Based on conditioning principles and aims to send a message to members of society that a specific crime or action will not be tolerated. Or an unpleasant experience in prison designed to put off the individual from repeating a crime

105
Q

What is Incapacitation

A

Protects the public by removing the offender to ensure further offending does not occur. Need for this depends on the severity of the crime

106
Q

What is retribution

A

Society extracts revenge by making the offender suffer, the level of suffering should be proportional to to the severity of the crime

107
Q

What is rehabilitation

A

Reform the offender. Prison should provide an opportunity to develop skills, access to addiction treatment and to reflect on crime

108
Q

What are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A
  • Stress and depression = higher rates of suicide and self harm than general population
  • Institutionalisation = Inability to function outside of prison after having adapted to norms and routines of prion life
  • Prisonisation = Unacceptable behaviour in general society which is encouraged in prison by socialisation(inmate code)
109
Q

What are recidivism rates in the uk

A

57% of uk offenders reoffend within a year of being released

110
Q

Which country has the best recidivism rates rates in europe and why don’t we adopt their model

A

Norway, because there is a bigger emphasis on rehabilitation, however some people have criticised this model as being soft

111
Q

A03: custodial sentencing psychological effects

A

Limitation: Suicide rates are 15x greater than the general population. Young single men most at risk, 24% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of psychosis. Therefore prison is not effective at rehabilitating people, especially those who are vulnerable

112
Q

A03: custodial sentencing individual differences

A

Limitation: not all offenders will react in the same way, and different prisons have different regimes therefore leading to different experiences. There are so many different variables it is hard to make a general conclusion that applies to everyone because there are too many variables

113
Q

A03: custodial sentencing opportunities

A

Strength: Opportunities for rehabilitation. Suggested that offenders become better people in prison because they have access to education, training and anger management schemes. Therefore suggesting there are many worthwhile experiences provided. However many prisons do not have the resources to provide such schemes and there is no long-term evidence to support this.

114
Q

A03: custodial sentencing universities for crime

A

Limitation: differential association theory suggests time spent with more experience criminals will allow inmates to learn tricks of the trade. Therefore undermining the attempt to rehabilitate prisoners

115
Q

A03: custodial sentencing alternatives

A

Limitation: Benefits of prison are often exaggerated in an attempt to appear tough on crime. Research shows prions does little to help rehabilitate offenders or deter others, alternatives such as community service and restorative justice allow offenders to maintain employment and family contact. Difficulty with this is that politicians are seen as soft when proposing these alternatives

116
Q

What does the behaviourist approach suggest about behaviour modification

A

Proposes that behaviour is learned, therefore it should be possible to unlearn behaviour using the same principles

117
Q

What is the aim of behaviour modification programmes

A

To reinforce obedient behaviour while punishing disobedient in the hope that it becomes extinct

118
Q

What is an example of a behaviour modification program and what is it based on

A

Token economy , based on operant conditioning

desirable behaviour is rewarded with tokens

119
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer

A

value derived from the association with a primary reinforcers

120
Q

How are behaviour modification programmes broken down into

A
  • Desirable behaviour is identified
  • broken down into small steps(increments)
  • baseline measurement is established
121
Q

What is selective reinforcement

A

staff that come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcement

122
Q

A03: Behaviour modification in custody Implementation

A

Strength: Easy to implement, cost-effective, no specialists required. However relies on constant approach from staff. High staff turnover rates and lack of appropriate training cause this to suffer and benefits will be lost due to large amount of factors required to control

123
Q

A03: Behaviour modification in custody rehabilitation value

A

Limitation: little rehab value as positive changes are often quickly lost when released. Token economy doesn’t work well outside of a custodial setting because law-abiding behaviour is not always reinforced therefore token economy is limited in its value

124
Q

A03: Behaviour modification in custody ethics

A

Limitation: Ethical issues = considered manipulative, dehumanising and obligatory participation, therefore 0 compliance may mean the loss of privileges. This questions morality and fairness of the system

125
Q

A03: Behaviour modification in custody superficial learning

A

Limitation: encourages passive learning and only focuses on surface level behaviour, compared to anger management’s more active approach. Offenders can just play along for benefits therefore little change in their overall principles. Therefore not useful as when pressure is removed behaviour quickly reverts back

126
Q

A03: Behaviour modification in custody tailored programs vs general

A

Strength: From studies token economy is generally effective but is even more effective when tailor programmes were made with more frequent rewards. Especially helpful for those who didn’t originally respond, therefore effectiveness can be maximised when rewards and frequency suit the individual

127
Q

What triggers aggression

A

Cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal that occurs before aggressive acts

128
Q

How is becoming angry reinforced

A

The individual’s feeling of control in that situation

129
Q

Anger management is a form of CBT, What are the aims

A

To teach individuals to recognise cognitive factors triggering anger and loss of control,
as well as equipping them with skill to deal with it such as behavioural techniques to bring about conflict-resolution without the need for violence

130
Q

What are the 3 stages of CBT for anger management

A

Stage 1 - Cognitive preparation
Stage 2 - Skill acquisition
Stage 3 - Application practice

131
Q

What is involved in stage 1 of CBT: anger management

A

Cognitive preparation, requires offender to reflect on past experience and learn to identify triggers of anger and how their interpretation of events may be irrational

132
Q

What is involved in stage 2 of CBT: anger management

Include cognitive, behavioural and physiological techniques

A

Skill acquisition,to deal with anger provoking situation e.g.

  • Cognitive: positive self-talk
  • Behavioural: Assertiveness , better communication skills
  • Physiological: Relaxation methods e.g. meditation
133
Q

What is involved in stage 3 of CBT: anger management

A

Application practice, offender practices skills learned in a monitored environment via role play.

134
Q

State an example of anger management having a positive example with young offenders and explain it breifely

A

Keen et al, studied young offenders aged 17-21 who took part in a national recognised anger management scheme,
after initial difficulties e.g. not taking it seriously. In the end overall positive with offenders reporting an increased awareness of anger and capacity for self-control

135
Q

A03: Anger management Eclectic approach

A

Strength: Anger management works on many different levels, Stage 1 = cognitive prep in identifying angers, stage 2 = behavioural perspective in developing self-management techniques, stage 3 = social approach when required to roleplay. This multidisciplinary approach understands offending is complex social and psychological activity

136
Q

A03: Anger management Tackle the cause

A

Strength: No focus on superficial behaviour like behaviour modification. Addresses thought process giving new insight into causes for criminality allowing self management outside of prison. Therefore more likely to lead to permanent change and lower recidivism rates

137
Q

A03: Anger management Long-term effectiveness

A

Limitation: studies show only short-term effect, little evidence it reduces recidivism in the long-term. Stage 3 is too artificial not reflecting real life events. Therefore questions the effectiveness of the program

138
Q

A03: Anger management Anger is the root of all offending?

A

Limitation: Theories assume there’s a straightforward causal relationship between anger and offending.Maybe false.e.g.financial crime. Studies show no difference in levels of crime classed as violent or non-violent. THerefore program maybe misguided and provides offenders with a justification for all behaviour

139
Q

A03: Anger management Expensive and commitment needed

A

Limitation: Expensive as you require trained professionals and not all prisons have the funding for this. Also effectiveness of program relies on level of commitment of participants. Therefore these issues limit the effectiveness of the program

140
Q

What is restorative justice

A

System for dealing with criminal behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with the victims by having the victim take an active role

141
Q

where does restorative justice place its emphasis on

A

Focuses on the needs of the victims instead of the needs of the state, therefore it encourages victims to take an active role in process and tries to make offenders take responsibility and face up

142
Q

What is the involved in restorative justice

A

A supervised meeting between the two parties is arranged, where the victim explains how the incident has affected them(important part of rehab process), which meaning the offender is able to see the consequences of their actions

143
Q

What are the principles of restorative justice based on

A

Healing and empowerment.

144
Q

What are the 4 key features of restorative justice

A

All programs vary but share these key features
1 - Focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change
2 - Non-courtroom setting, where offenders voluntarily choose to meet face to face
3 - Active involvement from all parties
4 - Focus on positive outcome for both survivors and offenders

145
Q

List some variations of Restorative justice process

A
  • Not all meet face to face
  • Offender may make a financial restitution to compensate for psych or physical damage done
  • Offender may fix any physical damaged themselves
  • Maybe a add-on to community service or as an incentive to reduce an existing sentence
146
Q

What is the role of the Restorative justice council (RJC)

A

They are an independent body which establishes clear standards for RJ to support its victims and professionals.
They also advocate the use in school,hospitals,prisons…

147
Q

A03: Restorative justice Diversity of programmes

A

Strength: Flexible in use as it covers a wide range of application, or can be adapted to fit the needs of the situation. However this does present difficulties about drawing conclusions about the effectiveness of the approach.

148
Q

A03: Restorative justice reliance on offender

A

Limitation: Relies on the offender showing remorse. Offender may sign up to reduce sentence,avoid prison, or victim they may have ulterior motives eg.revenge therefore may not always lead to positive outcomes

149
Q

A03: Restorative justice cost

A

Limitation: Studies conducted found every £1 spent on RJ, saves the criminal justice system £8, but it requires skill and an experienced mediator who are rare and expensive. Program’s also have a high drop-out rate .e.g. offenders losing their nerve. Therefore in practice it may not be the most cost-effective.

150
Q

A03: Restorative justice Feminist critique

A

Limitation: Concern about power imbalance in relationship between abuser and abused and the fact that the wider community should be supportive, often resorts to blaming the victim. Therefore questions the suitability of RJ for certain types of offence.

151
Q

A03: Restorative justice soft option

A

Limitation: Little public support despite its reduced recidivism rates and cheaper cost compared to prison. Often regarded as soft by politicians convincing they are tough on crime. so despite effectiveness the political will to use RJ is not always there

AQA A level Psychology (11 decks)

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