P1: Memory Flashcards
Describe the research method conducted on coding
Participants were required to recall words in the correct order.
4 lists: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar
Describe the conclusion found from research on coding
Immediate recall was worse with acoustic similar.
Recall after 20 mins was worse with semantic similar
STM is acoustic, LTM is semantic
Describe the research method conducted on capacity
A researcher reads 4 digits increasing each time, while a participant repeats back
Describe the conclusion found from research on capcity
On average participants could repeat 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters immediately in the correct order
Describe the research method conducted on memory span and chunking
Observations were made of everyday practices, and noticed things come in sevens,e.g. 7 days of the week
Describe the conclusion found from research conducted on memory span and chunking
The memory span of the STM is about 7 items(plus or minus 2), however this can be improved by chunking
Describe the research method conducted on the duration of the STM
24 students were given a constant syllable to remember and a 3 digit number to count backwards from for a given time.
Describe the conclusion found from research conducted on the duration of the STM
An average of 80% of syllables were correct with a 3s interval. Avg recall after 18s was 3%.
Was suggested that the duration of the STM without rehearsal is 18-30s
Describe the research method conducted on the duration of the LTM
392 americans aged 17-24 did two tests
1) Recognition test:50 photos from participants yearbook
2) Free recall test: Participants listed names of their graduating class
Describe the conclusion found from research conducted on the LTM
Participants tested after 15 years of graduation were 90% ,48y were 70% accurate in photo recognition,
Free recall was less accurate being 15y was 60% and 48y was 30%
A03:Research on coding Material used
Limitation: No meaningful material used, words had no personal meaning. When processing more meaningful info people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks, therefore must be careful in generalising different kinds of memory tasks
A03: Research on capacity (digit span) Temporal validity
Limitation: Early research lacked control of extraneous variables therefore the research may not be valid due to confounding variables. However results have been confirmed in other research supporting its validity.
A03: Research on memory span and chunking Overestimated?
Limitation: Research was reviewed and suggested that the capacity of the STM is only about 4 chunks, suggests that 5 items is more appropriate than 7
A03: Research on the duration of the STM Artificial stimulus
Limitation: lack of external validity, as it doesn’t reflect most real-life memory activities, however there are times when we remember meaningless memories e.g. phone number
A03: Research on the duration of the LTM Ecological validity
Strength: It used real-life meaningful memories, found that using meaningless pictures recall rates were lower. However confounding variables were not controlled e.g.may have looked at the yearbook before the test
How many stores is the multi-memory model made up of, and what are their names
3 stores
- Sensory register (Iconic and Echoic)
- STM store
- LTM store
What is the MSM(multi-store memory)
It describes how information is flows through the memory system.
What is the Sensory regisor
A stimulus from the environment. It is made up of five stores, one for each sense.
What are the two main stores in the sensory registor
- Iconic memory(Visual info coded visually)
- Echoic memory(Auditory info is coded acoustically)
What is the Duration, Capacity and Coding of the Sensory register(SR)
- Duration: Very brief, less than half a sec
- Capacity: High, e.g. 1 eye storing millions of info
- Coding: Depends on sense, visual,auditory
Describe the transfer of info from SR to STM
Very little goes of what goes into the SR is passed into the memory system, however if you pay attention it will.
What is the STM
Known as limited capacity store as it can only contain a limited number of items/things before forgetting occurs
What is the Duration, Capacity and Coding of the STM
- Duration: 18-30s unless rehearsed
- Capacity: 5-9 items before forgetting occurs
- Coding: Acoustic
Describe the transfer of info from STM to LTM
If rehearsed it can be kept in the STM. If rehearsed long enough it passes into the LTM. This is also known as ‘maintenance rehearsal’
What is the LTM
A permanent memory store for info that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. In order to recall info from the LTM it must be transferred back to the STM via retrieval
What is the Duration, Capacity and Coding of the LTM
- Duration: potential a lifetime
- Capacity: potential unlimited
- Coding: Semantic i.e.in terms of meaning
A03: The multi-memory model Research evidence
Strength: Research support found that we tend to mix up similar sounding words in the STM, but similar meaning words in the LTM. STM is acoustic and LTM is semantic. Therefore, supports the view that they are separate and independent stores
A03: The multi-memory model Type of STM
Limitation: Case study on KF displays there are multiple types STM however, the MSM displays only 1 unitary store. Found that when digits were read to KF(amnesia patient) recall was poor compared to when he read them himself. Suggested that there must be a ST store to process visual info and anther to process auditory info.
A03: The multi-memory model Type of rehearsal
Limitation: Suggested that there are 2 types of rehearsal, maintenance and elaborative. Elaborative rehearsal(not in MSM)occurs when you link info to existing knowledge which is needed for long-term storage.Therefore a serious limitation as the model cannot explain this research finding
A03: The multi-memory model Artificial material
Limitation: Research evidence required people to recall digits,letters,words and sometimes consonant syllables(random syllables.e.g.ZLN) In real life we form memories related to useful things.e.g.names,facts,places. Therefore suggests a lack of ecological validity as research shows how memory works with meaningless material.
A03: The multi-memory model Simplification of LTM
Limitation: Lots of research evidence that says LTM is not a unitary store.Suggested that we have one LTM store for memories of facts about the world(semantic) and a different one for memories of how to ride a bike(episodic).Therefore MSM is limited as it doesn’t reflect the different types of LTM
List 3 types of long-term memory
- Episodic memory
- Semantic memory
- Procedural memory
What is the Episodic memory
Stores events from our lives, like a diary of daily happenings. These memories are time-stamped and involve several elements(e.g.places,behaviour) woven into one memory. A conscious effort must be made in order to recall them
What is the Semantic memory
Stores our knowledge of the world like an encyclopedia and a dictionary. These memories are not time-stamped, they are usually less personal and more about the knowledge we all share
What is Procedural memory
Stores memories for actions and skills/how we do things.e.g.driving. Recall occurs without conscious awareness or effort
A03: Types of LTM Evidence
Strength: Clinical studies of amnesia showed patients had trouble recalling events,however semantic memories were relatively unaffected.e.g. man forgets about stroking a dog but doesn’t need the concept of dog explained Therefore supports the view that there are different memory stores in the LTM
A03: Types of LTM Neuroimaging
Strength: Evidence from brain scans show different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain. Episodic and semantic memories located in prefrontal cortex………
A03:Types of LTM Real-life application
Strength: Allows psychologists to target certain kinds of memories to improve lives
A03: Types of LTM Clinical evidence generalisation
Limitation: Lack of control.e.g.personality, therefore it is difficult to generalise the case studies to determine the exact nature of the LTM.
A03: Types of LTM How many types of LTM
Limitation: Suggested that episodic and semantic memories are store together in one LTM store called declarative memory(recall consciously) procedural is called non-declarative. It is important to get this right as it influences the way memory studies are conducted
What is the Working memory model(WMM)
An explanation/model of how STM is organised and how it functions
What function does the Central executive(CE) serve in the WMM
An attentional process which monitors incoming data and allocates slave systems to tasks.Slave studies being PL and VSS. Also has limited capacity
What function does the Phonological loop(PL) serve in the WMM
Deals with auditory info and saves the order in which info arrives. Subdivided into:
Phonological store, Articulatory process
What is the Phonological loop divided into and what do they do
- Phonological store: store the words you hear
- Articulatory process: Allows maintenance rehearsal
What function does the visuo-spatial(VSS) sketchpad serve in the WMM
Stores spatial(/visual) info when required. Also has limited capacity. Subdivided into: Visual cache, Inner scribe
What is the Visuo spatial sketchpad divided into and what do they do
- Visual cache: Stores visual data
- Inner scribe: Records arrangement of objects in a visual field
What function does the Episodic buffer(EB) serve in the WMM
A temporary store for info which maintenances a sense of time sequencing. It integrates visual,spatial,verbal info from other stores. Links to LTM
A03: The Working Memory Model Patient KF
Strength: Patient KF had brain damage, poor STM ability for verbal info but can process visual info normally.i.e.Phonological loop was damaged,but other areas intact. However, evidence from brain-damaged patients maybe unreliable as it concerns unique patients who have traumatic experiences
A03: The Working Memory Model Dual task performance
Strength: Studies shows participants have difficulties doing two visual tasks compared to one visual and verbal task at the same time, because both visual tasks compete for the same limited resources.Therefore proves evidence for Visuo-spatial Sketchpad.Which MSM can’t explain this.
A03: The Working Memory Model Central executive
Limitation: The Central executive doesn’t explain anything. Needs to be more specific rather than being labelled attention,therefore the WMM hasn’t been fully explained. Incomplete model as not everything is explained.
A03: The Working Memory Model Word length effect
Strength: Word length effect: harder to remember long words rather than short, due to limited space for rehearsal in articulatory process. Word length effect disappears when given a repetitive task
A03: The Working Memory Model Brainscans
Strength: tasks involving the CE were conducted while having a brainscan. Found activity in the prefrontal cortex. As task increased so did activity. Therefore provides evidence that the CE may have a physical reality in the brain
What is interference?
Forgetting because in the LTM when we are unable to access memories even though they are available, this could be due to two different pieces of info being in conflict.
How many types of interference are there and what are they called?
2 types:
- Proactive interference
- Retroactive interference
What is Proactive interference(PI)?
When an older memory interferes with a newer memory(Think ‘pro’ as in working forwards old to new)
What is Retroactive interference(RI)?
When a new memory interferes with an older memory(Think ‘retro’ as in working backwards new to old)
What are the effects of similarity in terms of interference
Interference is worse when memories are similar. Maybe because in,
- Proactive interference: old info makes new info hard to store.
- Retroactive: new info overwrites old memories.
A study conducted on effects of similarity. What were the researchers names?
McGeoch and McDonald
What was the procedure in the study testing the effects of similarity in memory?
-Participants asked to recall list of words
-Then divided into 6 different groups
.e.g.synonyms,antonyms,random,digits…
-Finally asked to learn the new list
-The degree in which they were similar was then determined
What were the conclusions of the study conducted by McGeoch and McDonald?
(Hint: Think memory)
-Most similar material had the worst recall
-Different materials gave a higher mean recall
Therefore shows interference is strongest when memories are similar.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Interference Lab studies
Strength: Loads of studies show that both types of interference are likely causes of forgetting. Lab experiments also have high internal validity, therefore a valid explanation
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Interference Artificial materials
Limitation: Material used was often a word test. Which is quite different to everyday situations in which we remember things. Therefore artificial materials make interference more likely in the lab and may not be the cause of everyday forgetting
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Interference Real-life studies
Strength: Study on rugby players conducted where they needed to recall names of teams they had played. Found time didn’t matter, instead it was the frequency of of games which lead to higher recall. Therefore study shows that interference can apply to at least some everyday situations.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Interference Time period for learning
Limitation: Time period for learning was heavily reduced compared to real life situations. This does not reflect real life, therefore results cannot be generalised outside the lab. A possibility is that interference’s role is exaggerated
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Interference Use of Cues
Limitation: Studies displayed that cues allowed easier access to forgotten words that have been stored in the LTM, which previously couldn’t be access
What are memory cues and how do they help prevent retrieval failure?
A trigger of information that allows us to access a memory. Cues maybe meaningful or indirectly linked to something in the event of coding.
What happens when there is an absence of Cues?
If a cue isn’t present during time of recall, there will be no access to that memory it is associated
How is a Cue created?
When a memory is created an associated cue will be stored at the same time.
What is retrial failure?
A form of forgetting when don’t have the necessary cues associated to the memory which allows recall.
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle(ESP)?
- The idea that cues help retrieval if the same cues are present during encoding and retrieval.
- The closer the retrieval cue is to the original cue the better the cue works
There are two types of cues? What are they?
- One that has a meaningful link to the memory
- and one that has not meaningful link to the memory
State what is meant by context dependant forgetting?
When memory retrieval is dependant on the external/environmental cue(e.g.A location or weather)
State what is meant by state dependant forgetting?
When memory retrieval is dependant on an internal cue(e.g. a state of mind or mood)
What was the procedure for Godden and Baddeley study on context dependant forgetting?
4 groups of deep sea divers learnt word lists different locations.
Group 1 - Learn on land , recall on land
Group 2 - Learn on land , recall underwater
Group 3 - Learn underwater , recall on land
Group 4 - Learn underwater , recall underwater
What were the findings for Godden and BAddeley’s study on dependant forgetting?
When environmental context did not match recall was 40% lower compared to when they did match. Therefore when the external cues available at learning were different to the ones at recall, it led to retrieval failure due to lack of cues.
Name how a study could be conducted to investigate the effects of State dependant forgetting?
Have 4 groups of participants who are required to recall a list of words. Some participants should be given a mood changing drug, such as a slightly sedative drug which causes drowsiness.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Evidence
Strength: Strong range of evidence supporting case(Lab + real-life).e.g. Godden and Baddeley’s research with deep sea divers. Argued retrieval failure maybe the main reason forgetting in the LTM, therefore supports the validity of the explanation.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Context effects
Limitation: Different contexts need to be different.e.g. land and sea, not in 2 different rooms(that’s more likely to be other factors causing forgetting)Therefore real-life applications fail due to contextual cues not explaining much.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Recall vs recognition
Limitation: Godden and Baddeley replicated the deep sea diver experiment with a recognition test instead of recall. Found no context dependant effect, result was the same regardless of environment. Therefore limits retrieval failure as an explanation as absence of cues only affects memory when you test recall not recognition.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure The ESP
Limitation: When a cue produces successful recall we assume cue was present during encoding.
When cue does not produce successful recall we assume cue was not present during encoding. However, there is no way to independently establish whether or not the cue was truly encoded.
A03: Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure Real-life application
Strength: e.g. forgetting something then retracing your steps only to remember. Suggests that it is worth revisiting the environment in which you first thought of something. This is also a basic principle of cognitive interview, a method to make eyewitness recall more info about the crimes via ‘contextual reinstatement’
What is an Eyewitness testimony(EWT)?
A person’s ability to remember the details of events,such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed. The accuracy of this can be affected by other factors such as leading questions.
What is misleading information?
Incorrect information given to the eyewitness, typically after the event
What is a leading question?
A question phrased in a specific way, suggesting a certain answer.
What is the response-bias explanation? about why do leading questions affect EWT
Wording of a question has no enduring effect on an eyewitness’s memory of an event, however it influences the type of answer given
What is the substitution explanation? about why do leading questions affect EWT
Wording of a question does affect the eyewitness’s memory. It attempts to interfere with the original memory, distorting its accuracy.
Describe the procedure of the study performed testing the effects of leading questions?
5 groups of participants watched film clips of car accidents. Ther critical question was:’ About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. Each group was given a different verb in the question
State the findings of the study performed testing the effects of leading questions?
Verb: Contacted - mean estimated speed of 31.8mph
-Smashed - mean estimated speed of 40.5mph
Verb ‘smashed’ suggested a faster speed of the car than ‘contacted’
What are the effects of Post-event discussion(PED) and when is this likely to occur?
Likely to occur when there is more than one witness to an event. PED may affect the accuracy of each witness’s ability to recall the of the event as they may discuss what they have seen with others thus possibly warping their memory.
What are the 2 possible effects from Post-event discussion(PED)?
Memory contamination or Memory conformity
What is Memory contamination?
When co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories
What is Memory conformity?
Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or believe other witnesses are correct
Describe the procedure of the study performed testing the effects of Post-event discussions?
Paired participants watched a video of the same crime but each watched it from a different perspective meaning the other saw things the other didn’t. Then they discussed before a recall test.
Describe the findings of the study performed testing the effects of Post-event discussions?
71% of participants recalled elements of they did not see in the video but had picked up in the PED, compared to the control group where there was no PED meant no errors
A03: Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information Real-life application
Strength: Practical application for police officers about consequences of of inaccurate EWT. Therefore due to this info we can help to improve how the legal system works
A03: Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information Artificial material
Limitation: Watching film clips of car accidents is very different to real life. Found that witnesses of traumatic real armed robbery had very accurate recall 4 months after. Therefore, shows artificial material tells us little about the effect of EWT in real crimes or accidents.
A03: Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information Individual differences
Limitation:
A03: Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information Demand characteristics
Limitation:
A03: Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information Ecological validity
Limitation:
