P3: Relationships

Question 1

What are the theories of romantic relatioships?

Answer 1

Social Exchange Theory
Equity Theory
Rusbult’s Investment Model

Question 2

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 2

A theory of how relationships form and develop. It assumes that romantic partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards and costs.
A satisfying and committed relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are less attractive than the current relationship.

Question 3

What are the factors of Thibault and Kennedy’s social exchange theory?

Answer 3

Rewards, Costs and Profits

Question 4

What are the stages of social exchange theory?

Answer 4

Sampling- Explore rewards and costs of associating with others
Bargaining- A process of negotiating in which rewards and costs are agreed
Commitment- Exchange of rewards and acceptance of costs stabilise
Institutionalisation- Norms and expectations are firmly established

Question 5

What is the comparison level?

Answer 5

The amount of reward you believe you deserve.
Develops out of our experiences in previous relationships which feed into expectations- influenced by social norms.
We consider a relationship if the Cl is high.

Question 6

What can be used to support the social exchange theory?

Answer 6

Kurdek asked couples to complete a questionnaire measuring relationship commitment and SET variables.
Found that partners who were most committed also perceived the most rewards and fewest costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive.
First study to demonstrate that SET principles are independent.
Confirm the validity of this theory.

Question 7

What are the limitations of SET?

Answer 7

Claims that dissatisfaction arises only after a relationship stops being ‘profitable.’ Could be argued that we don’t moniter costs and rewards until after we become dissatisfied.
Concepts are vague and hard to quantify.
Costs and rewards are individual and hard to define.

Question 8

What is equity theory?

Answer 8

An economic theory of how relationships develop. It acknowledges the impact of rewards and costs on relationship satisfaction, but criticises social exchange theory for ignoring the central role of equity.

Question 9

What is the role of equity?

Answer 9

Walster: Partners must have roughly the same level of profit.
When there is a lack of equity, one partner over or under benefits, this can lead to dissatisfaction and unhapiness.
Satisfaction= perceived fairness

Question 10

What are the consequences of inequity?

Answer 10

The greater perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction.
What makes us most dissatisfied is the change in inequity as the relationship goes on.

Question 11

How do partners deal with inequity?

Answer 11

The underbenefitted partner is motivated to make the relationship more equitable as long as they believe it is possible to do so.
Another outcome is cognitive, they will revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable.

Question 12

What study can be used to support equity theory?

Answer 12

Mary Utne who surveyed recently- married couples.

Couples who saw their relationship as equitable were more satisfied than those who over/under benefitted.

Question 13

What are the limitations of equity theory?

Answer 13

Cultural limitations

Individual differences- not all partners are concerned with achieving equality.

Question 14

What is Rusbult’s Investment Model?

Answer 14

Commitment depends on three factors.

Question 15

What are the three factors of Rusbult’s Investment model?

Answer 15

1. Satisfaction
2. Comparing with alternatives
3. Investment

Question 16

Outline the role of satisfaction in Rusbult’s model:

Answer 16

Based on the concept of the comparison level.
Satisfying relationship is judged by comparing rewards and costs.
It is seem as profitable if it has many rewards and few costs.

Question 17

Outline the role of comparison with alternatives in Rusbult’s model:

Answer 17

Results in romantic partners asking whether their needs could be met outside the current relationship. Alternatives include not just other relationships but the possibility of not having one.

Question 18

Outline the role of investment in Rusbult’s model:

Answer 18

Realised CL are not enough to explain commitment.
An investment can be anything lost if the relationship ended.
Intrinstic investments and Extrinsic investments.

Question 19

What are intrinsic investments?

Answer 19

Resources we put directly into the relationship. Tangible things such as money and possessions.

Question 20

What are extrinsic investments?

Answer 20

Resources that previously did not feature in the relationship but are now closely associated with it.

Question 21

How does Le and Agnew’s meta-analysis support Rusbult’s model?

Answer 21

Reviewed 52 studies from late 1970 to 1999 from 11,000 of 5 countries.
Found that all factors sizes predicted relationship commitment.
Relationships in which commitment was greatest were the most stable and lasted longest.

Question 22

What other type of relationsips does Rusbult’s model explain?

Answer 22

Abusive relationships and why people subjected to IPV stay.
Out of domestically abused women in a shelter, those who had the greatest perceived investments and had the fewesr attractive alternatives were the most likely to return.
Shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people remain in relationships.

Question 23

What are the limitations of Rusbult’s investment model?

Answer 23

Views investment in a simplistic way.
Goodfriend and Agnew- there is more to it than just resources you have already put in.
Should include investments made in future plans. Motivated to commit because they want their plan to work out.
Original model= limited.

Question 24

What is Duck’s model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 24

An explanation of the stages people go through when their relationship is not working. Once on partner is dissatified, there are four phases in the process.

Question 25

What are the four phases of relationship breakdown in Duck’s model?

Answer 25

1. Intra- psychic phase
2. Dyadic phase
3. Social phase
4. Grave dressing phase

Question 26

What is the intra-psychic phase?

Answer 26

The focus is on cognitive processes occurring within the individual.
Dissatisfied partner starts to worry about the reasons for their unhappiness- centering on their patners shortcomings.
Partner mulls thoughts over privately and may share with a friend.
They weigh up the pros and cons and evaluate these to alternatives.
They begin to make future plans.

Question 27

What is the dyadic phase?

Answer 27

The focus is on interpersonal processes between partners.
Cannot avoid talking about their relationship.
Series of confrontations to discuss dissatisfactions.
Two possible outcomes:
Determination to continue breaking up
Renewed desire to repair the relationship
-Self disclosure may become deeper and more frequent.

Question 28

What is the social phase?

Answer 28

Focus is now on wider processes involving couple’s social networks.
The break-up is made public. Partners seek support.
Mutual friends are expected to choose sides.
Gossip is tradded and encouraged.
Usually the point of no return.

Question 29

What is the grave dressing phase?

Answer 29

Focus is now on the aftermath. Time has come to bury it by spinning a ‘favourable’ story abnout the break up. Allows the partner to save safe and maintain a good reputation- often at the expense of the other.
Gossip plays a crucial role, blaming circumstances and ither ect.
Involves creating a personal story you can live with.

Question 30

What is a strength of Duck’s model?

Answer 30

Suggests ways which relationship breakdown can be reversed.
Can be useful in recognising that different repair strategies can be more effective than others.
Insights can be used in relationship counselling to help people at difficult times.

Question 31

What are the limitations of Duck’s model?

Answer 31

Incomplete explanation of breakdown.
The resurrection phase was added later. Where ex partners apply what they have learn’t to future relationships.
Progression through stages is not inevitable because it is possible to return to an earlier point.
Does not account for the complexity and dynamic nature of relationship breakdown.
Underexplains the early stages- Much of the research is retrospective- metholodical issues.

Question 32

What is self disclosure?

Answer 32

Revealing private informatio about yourself to a partner.
If it is reciprocated it makes the relationship stronger.
The more revealed - the stronger the relationship gets.

Question 33

What is Sproull and Kiesler’s Reduced Cues theory?

Answer 33

Virtual relationships are less effective as they lack many of the cues we depend on.
- Non verbal eg. facial expressions ect
This can lead to a person losing their identity and acting in an abnormal way.

Question 34

What is a limitation of the reduced cues theory?

Answer 34

Lack of support- Online non verbal cues are different rather than absent.
Walther and Tidwell- people in online interaction use different cues such as timing, emojis ect.
This is hard for this theory to explain.

Question 35

What is Walther’s Hyper personal model?

Answer 35

Virtual relationships can be more personal and involve greater self disclosure.
This is because virtual relationships can develop very quickly as self-disclosure happens earlier and once established they are more intense.

Question 36

What are the two key factors of the Hyperpersonal model?

Answer 36

1. Sender of the message has greater control over what to disclose and the cues they send. This is selective self-presentation.
2. Receiver gains a positive impression of the sender, they may give feedback that reinforces the sender’s self presentation.

Question 37

What is a limitation of the Hyper personal model?

Answer 37

Challenged by findings of Ruppel’s meta- analysis of 25 studies comparing self disclosures in both types of relationship.
Self report showed that frequency, breadth and depth was greater in face to face.
Contradicts the view.

Question 38

What is absence of gating?

Answer 38

Face to face relationships often fail to form due to obstcles that might be considered off putting.
These ‘gates’ are absent in virtual interactions allowing relationships to begin that might not offline.

Question 39

What is a strength of the absence of gates?

Answer 39

Allows shy, lonely and socially anxious people to find virtual relationships.
McKenna and Bargh looked at online communication by awkward people. They found that those people were able to express their ‘true selves’ more.