P2 Section C (Research Methods) Flashcards
What is the abstract of a report
The abstract of a report is the first section of a psychological report consisting of a 150 word summary of the report.
What is included in the abstract of a report
Included in the abstract of a report is the aim, hypotheses, method, results, and conclusions of the report
What does the abstract of a report save researchers from doing
The abstract of a report saves researchers from reading hundreds of reports to find relevant research, instead they only need to read the abstract.
What is the introduction of a report
The introduction of a report is an overview of the research field (such as aggression) and then narrowed down to the personal piece of research being done.
Why is the funnel technique used in the introduction of a report
The funnel technique is used in the introduction of a report so broad themes and can be addressed first and then the more in-depth part of your study is explained.
What is the aims in a report
The aims in a report is the general targets of the study
What is the hypothesis in a report
The hypothesis in a report is a section stating what is going to be tested and what the expected outcome of the tests are
How is the hypothesis disclosed in a report
The hypothesis is disclosed in a report by saying the alternative and null hypothesis unambiguously and then justifying the direction of the hypothesis (either one-tailed or two-tailed)
What is the method of a report
The method of a report is a detailed section outlining how the experiment is conducted so anyone can replicate it
What is included in the method of a report
Included in the method of a report is the design, method, sample, participant, apparatus, procedure and ethics
What is the experimental design
The experimental design is the how participants are allocated to different conditions - independent groups, repeated measures or matched pairs
What is the experimental method
The experimental method is the type of experiment used to manipulate the variables to establish cause and effect such as lab experiment or field experiment
What is the sample
The sample is the way participants have been recruited for example volunteer sampling
What is the experimental procedure
Experimental procedure is a set of standardised instructions to follow in the study.
What is the results of a report
The results of a report is the section where the key findings are displayed in relation to the hypothesis
What is included in the quantitative results of a report
Included in the quantitative results of a report are the descriptive statistics (like charts), the measure of central tendency, the measure of dispersion (like standard deviation), reasoning behind choice of statistical test (like sign test)
What is included in the qualitative results of a report
included in the qualitative results of a report is thematic analysis of theme and categories in the language
What is discussion in a report
Discussion in a report is a summary of results in relation to the hypothesis and aims
What is included in the discussion of a report
Included in the discussion of a report is the comparison of own results to previous research, limitations of the research and how to improve for the future and also real-life applications of the research
What is referencing in a report
Referencing in a report is where all the sources the researcher has used to gather initial information and apparatus are credited to the founder
What is the appendices in a report
The appendices in a report is where any materials that’ve been used in the study are placed such as charts, questionnaires, consent forms, raw data and statistical calculations
What does the hypothesis predict
The hypothesis predicts the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
What must the hypothesis must be
The hypothesis must be operationalised which defines what each variable looks like
What is an example of an operationalised hypothesis
An example of an operationalised hypothesis is “aggressiveness will increase as time goes on and will be shown by more swearing”
What is the independent variable
The independent variable is the thing changed by the researcher (often the cause)
What is the dependent variable
The dependent variable is the measured result of the change
What is an alternative hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis is a testable statement of what the experimenter thinks will happen
What is a null hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a testable statement of what the experimenter predicts could happen by chance alone - opposite of alternative
What is a directional one tailed hypothesis
A directional one tailed hypothesis is a prediction of how the independent variable will effect the dependent variable, with a specified change
What is a non-directional two tailed hypothesis
A non-directional two tailed hypothesis is where direction is not stated but simply says that one factor affects another, or that there is an association or correlation between two variables
What is an extraneous variable
An extraneous variable is any variable other than the independent variable which may effect the dependent variable
What are the 3 types of extraneous variable
The 3 types of extraneous variable are participant variable, situational variable and experimenter variable
What is participant extraneous variable
Participant extraneous variable is factors like participants age and IQ which may affect results
What is situational extraneous variable
Situational extraneous variable is factors of the experimental setting and surrounding environment which may affect results like temperature or noise levels
What is experimenter extraneous variable
experimenter extraneous variable is factors of the experimenter such as their personality, appearance or their method of conducting which may affect results
What is an example of an experimenter extraneous variable
An example of an experiment extraneous variable is the gender of the researcher, as a female researcher may receive different answers than a male researcher
What is a confounding variable
A confounding variable is any uncontrolled extraneous variable which negatively affects results
What are demand characteristics
Demand characteristics are features of a piece of research which allow the participant to work out the aims or hypotheses of a study which may make participant change their behaviour
What are investigator effects
Investigator effects are ways in which researchers can unconsciously influence the participants response in a study
What is an example of investigator effects
an example of investigator effects is the researcher being biased in their interpretation of their data and so finding what they expect to find, also investigator’s accent or tone may effect participants as they may respond differently to a stern voice
How can researcher avoid investigator effects
researcher can avoid investigator effects by doing a double-blind study where the researcher and participant both don’t know what condition they’re in (e.g. don’t know whether medicine is given or a placebo)
What is independent groups design
independent groups design is where participants are allocated into separate groups for each condition
What is repeated measures design
repeated measures design is where participants are allocated into the same group for every condition
What is matched pairs design
Matched pairs design is where participants are allocated into two separate groups matched in pairs for qualities like IQ or age and one person from each pair takes part in a separate condition
Strengths of independent groups
Strengths of independent groups are less prone to demand characteristics since participants do one condition and so are less likely to guess aim of study
Weakness of independent groups
Weakness of independent groups is prone participant extraneous variables since participants in one condition may be more intelligent than those in another, causing different results
Strengths of repeated measures
Strengths of repeated measures are less prone to participant extraneous variables since the same people are in both conditions and less participants needed as they provide both sets of data
Weakness of repeated measures
Weakness of repeated measures are order effects since participant may be fatigued or bored which affects the results of second condition or participants may perform better in the second condition as they have had practise from the first and also prone to demand characteristics since they take part in all conditions so have an idea of what is being measured
How can you reduce order effects
Order effects can be reduced by counterbalancing, whereby half participants do condition A first followed by condition B, then the other half do condition B first then condition A
Strengths of matched pairs
Strengths of matched pairs are there are no order effects since different participants do each condition and also participants are matched so less prone to participant variables as there isn’t individual differences affecting the results
Weakness of matched pairs
Weakness of matched pairs are it is time-consuming to match participants and also matching is difficult since all participants will have different variables effecting their performance
What is a lab experiment
A lab experiment is an experiment done in a controlled environment where accurate measurements are possible
What are strengths of a lab experiment
Strengths of a lab experiment are easier to replicate since the procedure is standardised and there is higher control of extraneous variables so cause and effect can easily be established
What are weaknesses of a lab experiment
Weaknesses of a lab experiment are low ecological validity as it’s been done in an artificial setting where participant may act unnatural so can’t be applied to real-life and also participants are prone to demand characteristics as they’re aware they’re being tested
What is a field experiment
A field experiment is an experiment done in a real-life environment where the experimenter still manipulates the independent variable
What are strengths of a field experiment
Strengths of a field experiment are high ecological validity as the setting reflects real life and also less likelihood of demand characteristics since study may be covert
Weaknesses of field experiment
Weaknesses of field experiment are less control over extraneous variables and also it’s less able to be replicated
What is a natural experiment.
A natural experiment is an experiment conducted in real-life where experimenter has no control over the independent variable
Strengths of natural experiment
Strengths of natural experiment are less prone to demand characteristics as experiment may be covert and also higher ecological validity as done in real-life setting
Weaknesses of natural experiment
Weaknesses of natural experiment are unethical as experiment may be covert so no informed consent
What is a quasi experiment
A quasi experiment is an experiment where the independent variable occurs naturally and already exists such as age or gender
Strengths of quasi experiment
Strengths of quasi experiment are high ecological validity as done in real life setting
Weaknesses of quasi experiment
Weaknesses of quasi experiment are unable to replicate as there’s no control over variables
What’re the two types of observation technique
The two types of observation technique are participant and non-participant
What is participant observation
Participant observation is when observers are involved in the situation being studied to have a hands-on perspective such as Zimbardos prison experiment
What is non-participant observation
Non-participant observation is when observers aren’t actively involved in the study such as in Ainsworth’s Strange Situations study
What is overt observation
Overt observation is when participants know they’re being observed
What is covert observation
Covert observation is when participants don’t know they’re being observed
What are strengths of observational techniques
Strengths of observational technique are high external validity since observations usually done in a natural setting and also can be used when it’s impractical or unethical to manipulate variables like when studying football hooliganism
What are weaknesses of observational techniques
weaknesses of observational techniques are observer bias as observers may see what they want to see and also issues of invasion and informed consent arise if participants don’t know they’re being observed
How can data be gathered in observations
Data can be gathered in observations by visual recordings, audio recordings and note-taking
How’re behavioural categories used in observational design
behavioural categories are used in observational design by dividing target behaviours into subsets of behaviours through coding systems like M for Male and T for Talking
What is event sampling in observations
Event sampling in observations is when observer counts the number of times a behaviour occurs in an individual
What is time sampling in observations
Time sampling in observations is when the observer counts number of behaviours in a certain time frame such as what behaviour is exhibited every 30 seconds
What is inter-observer reliabilty
Inter-observer reliability is when each observer reports the same behavioural results and so lessening the chances of observer bias
How can inter-observer reliability be achieved
inter-observer reliability be achieved by operationalising a set of behavioural categories together before the observation so they don’t overlap with each other and are unambiguous
What are self-report techniques
Self-report techniques are research methods in which participants gave information without researcher’s interference
What are closed questions in a questionnaire
closed questions in a questionnaire are questions which involve yes or no answers or a range of fixed responses
What are open questions in a questionnaire
Open questions in a questionnaire are questions which allow the participant to answer in their own words and are more difficult to analyse but more in-depth
Strengths of questionnaire
Strengths of questionnaire are they’re replicable as they use standardised questions and also there is a lack of investigator effects as it can be done without researcher
Weaknesses of questionnaire
Weaknesses of questionnaire are participants may misinterpret questions and also they’re prone to social desirability bias as participants may lie in order to reflect who they want to be rather than who they are such as not revealing racist beliefs
What’re 3 types of interview
3 types of interview are structured, unstructured and semi-structured
What is structured interview
Structured interview is where identical closed questions are read to participants and interviewer writes down the answers and interviewer doesn’t need any training
What is unstructured interview
Unstructured interview is where there is an informal discussion about a topic and interviewer can ask follow-up questions and interviewer needs some training
What is semi-structured interview
Semi-structured interview is where there is a combination of structured and unstructured techniques producing quantitative and qualitative data
Strengths of interviews
Strengths of interviews are that misinterpreted questions can be explained and understood and also unstructured interviews allow for complex or sensitive issues to be dealt with face-to-face making participant relaxed
Weaknesses of interviews
Weaknesses of interviews are interviewer effects as interviewer can bias answers like by gender as female participant may be uncomfortable talking to male interviewer about sex and also participants may have difficulty putting feelings or opinions into words
What are correlational studies
Correctional studies are measuring factors to assess the direction and strength of a relationship
What are co-variables
Co-variables are the variables investigated in a correlation as the study is investigating a relationship between them, not a cause and effect
Strengths of correlational analysis
Strengths of correlational analysis are that correlation can be quantified such as +0.9 and also correlation doesn’t require manipulation of variables so can be used in unethical experiments
Weaknesses of correlational analysis
Weaknesses of correlational analysis are prone to extraneous variables which may have influenced a relationship such as a holiday affecting the amount of ice creams eaten depending on temperature
What are the two types of validity tested before a study
the two types of validity tested before a study are face validity and construct validity
What is face validity
Face validity is when a study is assessed to see if it looks like it measures what it’s supposed to
What is construct validity
Construct validity is ensuring there’s a theory which can back up what is being studied to provide theoretical grounding
What are two types of validity assessed after a study
Two types of validity assessed after a study are concurrent validity and predictive validity
What is concurrent validity
Concurrent validity is when comparisons are done to see whether the results are similar to show validity
What is predictive validity
Predictive validity is the extent to which results can predict future events
what is opportunity sampling
opportunity sampling is when participants are recruited conveniently because they are available at the time of carrying out the study
strength of opportunity sampling
strength of opportunity sampling is that it is time effective and less costly
limitation of opportunity sampling
limitation of opportunity sampling is that it is not representative of of whole population so lacks generalisability and also there is researcher bias as researcher chooses ppts
random sampling
random sampling is when all members of population have equal chance of being picked by methods like assigning numbers to population and using random number generator
strength of random sampling
strength of random sampling is that there is no researcher bias as no influence over who is picked
limitation of random sampling
limitation of random sampling is that if the sampling frame is large, then random sampling may be impractical and also it may be time-consuming
systematic sampling
systematic sampling is where every nth number person is chosen from a sampling frame
strength of systematic sampling
strength of systematic sampling is that it is fairly representative of population and there’s no researcher bias
limitation of systematic sampling
limitation of systematic sampling is that it is not truly unbiased unless you use random number generator beforehand
stratified sampling
stratified sampling is when a population is divided into stratas and then samples are chosen from each strata using a random sampling method
strength of stratified sampling
strength of stratified sampling is that it there is no researcher bias as selection within strata is random
limitation of stratified sampling
limitation of stratified sampling is that identified stratas can’t fully reflect all the differences between the people of the wider population and also time-consuming
volunteer sampling
volunteer sampling is when ppts self-select themselves to take part in a study
strength of volunteer sampling
strength of volunteer sampling is that participants are more likely to cooperate as they are willing to participate
limitation of volunteer sampling
limitation of volunteer sampling is that they may attract a particular profile of person so generalisability will lack
structured observation
structured observation is where researchers quantify what they are observing with a predetermined checklist of behaviours and sampling methods like event sampling or interval sampling
unstructured observation
unstructured observation is where researcher continuously records and writes everything they see during the observation
what is single-blind procedure
single-blind procedure is where only participants are unaware of what condition they are in so to avoid demand characteristics
what is type 1 error
type 1 error is when there is a false positive where the null hypothesis has been rejected when it’s actually true (claiming there is a significant difference when there actually isn’t one)
what is type 2 error
type 2 error is when there is a false negative where the null hypothesis has been accepted when it’s actually false (claiming there is no significant difference when there actually is one)
what is a paradigm
a paradigm is a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a scientific principle
what is a paradigm shift
a paradigm shift is a change in set of shared assumptions within a scientific discipline as a result of scientific revolution
what are Kuhn’s thoughts on psychology and paradigms
Kuhn’s thoughts on psychology are that it is a pre-science since there are too many conflicting approaches and paradigm shfits show progress within a science
what is falsifiability
falsifiability is the principle that states a theory cannot be scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue
how does Popper support falsifiability
Popper supports falsifiability as he said that successful theories that have been tested and supported have simply not been not been proven false yet and so psychology is a pseudoscience
what is a pseudoscience
pseudoscience is science that can’t been proven wrong like Freud’s Oedipus complex
when to use bar chart
bar chart is used when data is nominal (in categories) and bars need to be separated if drawing
when to use scattergram
scattergram is used when data is correlational
when to use histogram
histogram is used when data is interval (like scores on a test, kilograms, metres, seconds etc) and bars need to touch each other if drawing
what is a peer review
peer review is an assessment of a study done anonymously by experts in the field of the particular study carried out before a study is published
what are the aims of a peer review
aims of a peer review are to check validity, assess appropriateness, assess for plagiarism and inform allocation of future funding
what is an issue of anonymity of peer review
negative of peer review is that researchers can use their anonymity to criticise rivals in a field of psychology
