P2 Section A (Approaches in Psychology) Flashcards
psychology
psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions
Cartesian Dualism
Cartesian dualism is the idea that the mind and body are different, firstly proposed by Rene Descartes
what did John Locke propose and what is it
John Locke proposed empiricism which is the idea that all experiences can be obtained through the senses forming the basis of behaviourism
what did Charles Darwin say (successive/adaptive)
Charlies Darwin said all human behaviour has changed over successive generations and individuals with more adaptive genes survive - evolutionary approach.
what did Wilhelm Wundt do
Wilhelm Wundt composed the first experimental psychology lab in 1879 and was coined father of psychology as he moved it from philosophical roots to empirical method
What was Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic therapy
Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic therapy was a dream therapy called PSYCHOANALYSIS.
what did John B Watson write
John B Watson wrote “Psychology as the behaviourist views it” and with BF SKINNERS later involvement, the behaviourist approach is made.
Why did Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow form the Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow formed the Humanistic Approach as they rejected the belief that the individual couldn’t make their own behaviour and believed humans have free will
what did Ulric Neisser publish
Ulric Neisser published “Cognitive Psychology” and the cognitive approach came about in the 60s - the belief that the mind works like a computer.
what did Bandura do
Albert Bandura created a bridge between cognitive and behaviourist approaches with social learning theory.
Introspection
Introspection is the systematic method (developed by Wilhelm Wundt) of observing and examining conscious thoughts or emotions.
Cons of introspection
Cons of introspection are that it relies on an abstract concept (the mind), patients may not tell the truth in self-analysis as it is prone to social desirability bias and it is dependant on the environment as feelings and memories may influence answers during self-analysis, which is bad as it requires full attention
why do behaviourists disagree with introspection?
Behaviourists disagree with introspection as it is too vague and difficult to measure. Behaviourists use lab experiments to achieve this.
classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is how a neutral stimulus can elicit a new conditioned response.
Ivan Pavlovs classical conditioning on a dog
Ivan Pavlov used classical conditioning on a dog. Food (unconditioned stimulus) caused the dog to salivate (unlearned response). A bell (neutral stimulus) caused no reaction from the dog. When the bell and food were paired, the dog salivated. After, the bell was rang and the dog salivated as it became a conditioned response and stimulus.
Could classical conditioning be applied to humans? Yes and No -
classical conditioning can be applied to humans as darwin said all animals learn in the same way.
classical conditioning can’t be applied to humans as humans have critical thinking and have more awareness.
Watson and Rayner (1920) little albert pre study (9 months/unemotional)
In 1920, Watson and Rayner tested 9 month old little albert against his reactions to rabbits, rats, monkeys and different masks. He was described as “on the whole solid and unemotional”.
Watson and Rayner method
Watson and Rayner’s method was little albert turned 11 months old, a white rat was presented and seconds later a metal bar was struck - he began to cry It was done 7 times over 7 weeks and he cried every time. Every time the white rat was shown on its own, little albert cried.
What were Watson and Rayners findings from classical conditioning - phobias (behaviourism)
Watson and Rayner findings from classical conditioning was that Little Albert’s phobia of white rats generalised to similar things like the family dog and a white hat
What is extinction (phobias)
extinction is when a fear is lost after conditioning stops taking place such as to little albert after 10 days of not being conditioned.
pros of the little albert study (classical conditioning- behaviourism)
pros of the little albert study are that it proved classical conditioning can work on humans, it also proved extinction and also proved generalisation of phobias.
cons of the little albert study
a con of the little albert study is that it is unethical. another con is that it can’t be applied universally.
Thorndikes operant conditioning on a cat in a puzzle box(behaviourist)
Thorndike placed a cat in a puzzle box and it was encouraged to escape and reach fish placed outside. Thorndike found that the cat would stumble across lever that opened cage. as the cat kept getting put in the box, they became quicker at opening
what was thorndikes LAW OF EFFECT
thorndikes law of effect states any behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated. vice versa.
how does BF Skinner say people learn (behaviourist)
BF Skinner said humans operate on their environment and learn by consequences - being rewarded and punished for certain behaviours.
what is operant conditioning
operant conditioning is learning when behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences.
what are consequences that we learn from in operant conditioning
in operant conditioning we learn from the consequences of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
how did skinner prove operant conditioning (rats)
to prove operant conditioning, skinner place rats in a box. ever time the rats pressed a lever in the box, they’d be given a food pellet. Skinner found that the rats got quicker at pressing the lever as they were given food for it. this is positive reinforcement.
positive reinforcement (operant conditioning)
positive reinforcement is introducing a desirable stimulus (a reward) to encourage behaviour.
negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)
negative reinforcement is removing something negative to strengthen a behaviour e.g. removing homework for next lesson if the previous one is done well
What is punishment in operant conditioning (introducing)
Punishment in operant conditioning is introducing a negative consequence to prevent a behaviour
what do behaviourists pavlov and skinner think we learn from
behaviourist pavlov says we learn from association
behaviourist skinner says we learn from consequences
what is social learning theory
social learning theory is the theory proposed by Bandura that says we learn by observing and imitating others
why did Bandura (SLT) disagree with classical and operant conditioning?
Bandura disagrees with operant and classical conditioning as it couldn’t account for all human learning since there are mental processes that mediate between stimulus and response
what are role models in social learning theory (bandura)
role models in social learning theory are the people children identify with and observe and imitate (like parents and TV characters).
vicarious reinforcement (social learning theory)
vicarious reinforcement is the idea that behaviour is only imitated if it is reinforced/rewarded
What are mediational processes in social learning theory
mediational processes in social learning theory are cognitive factors that determine whether a behaviour is acquired or not
what are the four mediational processes? (SLT)
in SLT, mediational processes are attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
what is ATTENTION mediational process (SLT)
ATTENTION is whether we notice a behaviour
mediational process of RETENTION (SLT)
the mediational process in SLT of RETENTION is where we remember a behaviour
what is the mediational process of motor reproduction (SLT)
the mediational process of motor reproduction is whether we are able to perform the behaviour
mediational process of motivation (SLT)
the mediational process in SLT of MOTIVATION is whether the behaviour is rewarded or punished
banduras bobo doll study (for social learning theory)
banduras bobo doll study (for social learning theory) had 3 groups of 12 boys and 12 girls. One group observed their model behave aggressively to a doll (using hammers and throwing the doll), the other observed their model ignore the doll and play quietly with a tinker toy set, the other 24 were a control group and weren’t exposed to the doll
banduras bobo doll study findings (for social learning theory)
bandura found from his bobo doll study that the majority of the children in their groups imitated their model and either smashed the doll or played nicely.
pro of social learning theory
a pro of social learning theory is that it is holistic by acknowledging the role of cognitive processes in deciding whether behaviours are imitated or not an
con of social learning theory
a con of social learning theory is that there is little reference to biological factors like in Banduras bobo doll study where boys were more likely to behave aggressively that girls regardless of the situation but there is higher testosterone in males (hormonal factors) and also it cannot explain behaviour like psychopathy when there is no opportunity to learn the behaviour
what is the cognitive approach
the cognitive approach is the theory focusing on how the effects of beliefs, feelings and attitudes determine behaviour arguing the brain should be studied scientifically
what do behaviourists argue against cognitive psychologists?
behaviourists argue cognitive psychologists make inferences about what is going on inside someone’s mind on the basis of their behaviours.
what is the information processing approach (cognitive approach)
the information processing approach suggests information flows through a cognitive system like a computer (the stores, coding processing unit etc)
what are schemas (cognitive approach)
a schema is a mental framework like a package of information that are developed through experience such as a four-legged thing to sit on for a chair
why are schemas good? (cognitive approach)
schemas are good because they allow us to make mental shortcuts that prevent being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli/information
why can schemas be bad?(cognitive approach)
schemas can be bad as they may distort interpretations which may lead to perceptual errors.
what is cognitive neuroscience
cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of how the brain structure influences mental processing
how does brain scanning technology support cognitive approach?
brain scanning technology supports cognitve approach as it has allowed scientists to describe neurological basis of mental processing e.g. LTM and STM processing different types of memory
con of the cognitive approach
A con of the cognitive approach is that it is machine reductionist as it ignores the influence of human emotions on the ability to process memories as they believe the mind works like a computer and also unfalsifiable as based on premises of abstract concept of mind of which is untestable
What was grazioli and terry (2000) study to show real life application of the cognitive approach
grazioli and Terry’s(2000) study to show real life application of the cognitive approach is assessing 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerabilities finding women with high CV were more likely to suffer with post natal depression, which helped in the making a CBT
what is the biological approach
the biological approach is the theory that human behaviours are the consequence of our genetics, neurochemistry and nervous system and other biological features
how are twin studies used to prove that genetics are the basis of behaviour? (biological approach)
twin studies are used to prove genetics are the basis of behaviour as if monozygotic twins have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins for things like musical ability, schizophrenia and romantic films, then they’re must be a genetic role as MZ twins have 100% same genes whereas DZ twins have around 50% same genes
what is phenotype and how can they be effected (biological approach)
phenotype is the way genes are expressed physically, behaviourally and psychologically and can be effected by the environment
how can twins have same genotype but different phenotype? (biological approach)
monozygotic twins share the same genotypes but they are expressed differently as one twin may exercise more or dye their hair (phenotype)
what do biological psychologists accept?
biological psychologists accept that behaviour depends upon the interactions between the inherited factors and the environment (nature and nurture)
pro of biological approach
a pro of the biological approach is that it uses scanning techniques like FMRI and EEGs to measure biological and neural processes without bias
pro of biological approach
a pro of the biological approach is that the it has led to more knowledge on biochemical processes in the brain so has led to development of psychoactive drugs that treat mental illness like depression
con of biological approach
a con of the biological approach is that it is very deterministic as it is against free will; so defeats purpose of the legal system as nobody can control their behaviour
What did Turkheimer find in twin studies of different classes
Turkheimer found in twin studies of different classes - identical middle class children had more similar IQ than non identical middle class children and in poorer families, Turkheimer found non identical and identical twins had near enough the same IQ, suggesting they didn’t inherent the IQ
what is the psychodynamic approach
the psychodynamic approach is the theory that human behaviour is caused by different unconscious forces (dynamics) operating on the mind
what does our unconscious/subconscious mind hold? (psychodynamic approach)
our unconscious mind holds many REPRESSED thoughts that we think we’ve forgotten about, which are traumatic memories prevented from reaching conscious mind
what does the preconscious mind hold? (psychodynamic approach)
the preconscious mind holds dreams and “freudian slips”/parapraxis - when we say an error in speech
how is personality split according to freud (psychodynamic approach)
freud says personality is split into the Id, the ego and the superego.
what is the Id in personality? (psychodynamic approach)
The Id is the pleasure principle which is primitive and works to satisfy selfish needs and desires.
what is the superego in personality (psychodynamic approach)
the superego is the morality principle which forms between ages 3 and 6 to provide a moral code
what is the ego in personality (psychodynamic approach)
the ego is the reality principle which forms between ages 18 months and 3 to mediate the needs of the id’s selfishness and superego’s morality so neither is the most dominant part of the personality
what are the egos defence mechanisms (psychodynamic approach)
the ego has 3 defence mechanisms to reduce conflict between the Id and the Superego which are denial, displacement and repressions
what is the repression defence mechanism (psychodynamic approach)
the defence mechanism of Repression is forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
what is denial defence mechanism (psychodynamic approach)
the denial defence mechanism is refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
what is the displacement defence mechanism? (psychodynamic approach)
the displacement defence mechanism is transferring feelings from the source of distress onto a substitute target .
What was Bartlett’s (1932) study on schemas and his findings
Bartlett’s (1932) study on schemas was asking people to recall a Native American folklore he told them and found that people would change the story when remembering it to match their own cultural expectations showing that memory is reconstructive and shaped by cultural schemata
What is the oral stage
The oral stage is where a child aged up to 2 years gets pleasure from oral stimulation.
What is a later problem with failure in oral stage
A later problem with failure in the oral stage is aggression or problems with drinking and smoking
What is the anal stage
The anal stage is where a child aged 15 months to 3 years focuses on controlling the bladder and bowels
What is a later problem with failure in anal stage
A later problem with failure in anal stage is anal expulsive or anal retentive
What is the phallic stage
The phallic stage is where a child aged 3-6 years becomes a rival for the affection opposite-sex parent and identifies with the same sex.
What is a later problem with failure in phallic stage
A later problem with failure in phallic stage is confused sexual identity and girls develop penis envy
What is the latency stage
The latency stage is where a child aged 6 to puberty lessens their sexual desires and focuses on intellectual and social development
What is a later problem with failure in latency stage
A later problem with failure in latency stage is poor communication skills and lack of self-confidence
What is the genital stage
The genital stage is where a child from ages of puberty until adulthood renews their sexual desires and seek relationships with others
What is a con of Freuds theory
A con of Freud theory is that universal claims cannot be made since his studies were performed on individuals who were psychologically abnormal such as Little Hans and so lack population validity
What is a biological con of Freuds theory
A biological con of Freuds theory is that it is androcentric presenting males as the norm whereas biological tests are done on both genders
What is a pro of Banduras bobo doll study
A pro of banduras bobo doll study is that it was done in a lab so is controlled and scientific
How does Banduras bobo doll study lack external validity
Banduras bobo doll study lacks ecological validity since Children were in a lab and so act differently to how they’d act in real life, completing a field experiment could be better
How is banduras bobo doll study prone to demand characteristics
banduras bobo doll study is prone to demand characteristics as it is conducted in a lab so children may just think that striking the doll as the adult did is what was expected from them
What is a con of the information processing approach of cognitive approach
A con of the information processing approach of cognitive approach is that it is machine reductionist and so ignores the influence of human emotion upon the ability to process information
How did Johnson and Scott (1978) show information processing approach is machine reductionist
Johnson and Scott (1978) showed information processing approach is machine reductionist by finding that anxiety would lower accuracy of recall
What are Freuds psychosexual stages
Freuds psychosexual stages are a series of 5 phases that a child will develop through by resolving the conflicts associated with each stage
What happens if Freuds conflicts in stages aren’t resolved
If Freuds conflicts in stages aren’t resolved then the child will carry the behaviours and conflicts of the stages into adult life
What is the humanistic approach
The humanistic approach is the idea crafted by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that behaviour should be looked at holistically and shouldn’t be generalised since everyone is unique.
What do humanists believe about free will
Humanists believe about free will that humans have the ability to do what we want and humans are active agents who can determine their own development
What is Maslows pyramid of personal needs
Maslows pyramid of personal needs is a hierarchy of 5 needs which need to be fulfilled to move up to the top of the pyramid
What happens self-actualisation is met at the top of Maslows personal needs
When self-actualisation is met at the top of Maslows personal needs, then person will have a desire to develop and will feel energetic and creative
What happens if self-actualisation isn’t met
if self-actualisation isn’t met then person will view the world as meaningless
What are Maslows personal needs in order from top to bottom
Maslows personal needs in order from top to bottom are:
SELF ACTUALISATION
NEED FOR DIGNITY
NEED FOR LOVE AND BELONGING
NEED FOR SAFETY
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
What happens if physiogical needs are met in Maslows personal needs
If psychological needs are met in Maslows personal needs then you have no cravings
What happens if physiological needs are not met in Maslows personal needs
If psychological needs are not met in Maslows personal needs then person will crave food and water
Why is Rogers and Maslows humanists approach unquantifiable
Rogers and Maslows humanists approach unquantifiable because they reject the idea of using scientific methods to explain behaviour as it’s a person-centred approach and so there’s no information to quantify
What is congruence in the humanistic approach
congruence in the humanistic approach is a requirement for personal growth where there is a similarly between actual self and ideal self (who you want to be)
What is incongruence in the humanistic approach
Incongruence in the humanistic approach is when there is a large gap between actual self and ideal self which leads to low feelings of self-worth
What is ROGERIAN therapy
ROGERIAN therapy is a form of therapy where advice is given to a person to make them feel self worth and develop the patient into self actualisation and personal growth
What’s a pro of ROGERIAN therapy
A pro of ROGERIAN therapy is that it views an individual holistically, so everyone is different and can be catered to each persons own difficulties
What is a con of ROGERIAN therapy
A con of ROGERIAN therapy is that it cannot be applied to serious mental illnesses as they aren’t told a solution
What is real life application of ROGERIAN therapy
real life application of ROGERIAN therapy is that it has revolutionised counselling techniques by emphasising importance of listening and building relationships with clients
What is a con of the humanistic approach
A con of the humanistic approach is that self actualisation and congruence can’t actually be measured but Rogers made a Q-TEST to measure progress in therapy but it is still unscientific and lacking empirical evidence
What is the eclectic approach
The eclectic approach is the modern idea that psychology should be multidisciplinary and so combines several approaches and theoretical perspectives to provide one more comprehensible account of human behaviour
How does Horney criticise alpha bias in Freud’s psychodynamic approach
Horney criticises alpha bias in Freud’s psychodynamic approach by saying ‘penis-envy’ doesn’t exist, women are just envious of male social position and males get ‘womb-envy’ as they can’t have children
How is Freud’s psychodynamic approach is alpha biased and androcentric
Freud’s psychodynamic approach is alpha biased and androcentric as it suggests femininity is failed masculinity and women get ‘penis-envy’ showing they’re envious of men
