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P2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What factors influence the selection of species for agriculture?

A

Market demand and access, range of tolerance and species adaptations/ control of environmental conditions

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2
Q

What abiotic factors need to be controlled in agriculture?

A

Temperature, light, water, soil fertility, aeration, soil salinity, soil pH, carbon dioxide, topography and wind velocity

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3
Q

What’s the importance of biodiversity?

A

Resources, new food species, biomimetics, medicines, physiological research, pest control, genetic resources and ecosystem services

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4
Q

What is a new food species that has the potential for commercial cultivation?

A

The Potato Bean of North America has a high protein content

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5
Q

What’s an example of pest control species?

A

Bt bacterium introduced to control insect crop pests

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6
Q

What are some ecosystem services from biodiversity?

A

Atmospheric composition, hydrological cycle, biogeochemical cycles, soil maintenance, interspecies relationships, food, pollination, seed dispersal and habitat provision

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7
Q

What are the threats to biodiversity?

A

Direct exploitation, changes in abiotic/ biotic conditions, habitat destruction, eradication of predators/competitors and introduced species

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8
Q

What are some examples of direct exploitation of species?

A

Food, pets/entertainment, fashion, furniture and ornaments and traditional medicines

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9
Q

How can introduced species impact biodiversity?

A

Competitors, predators, pathogens, hybridise, loss of control of abiotic facotrs

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10
Q

What’s an example of introduced competitors?

A

Grey squirrel in UK from North America

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11
Q

What’s an example of introduced predators?

A

Cane Toads in Australia from South America

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12
Q

What’s an example of introduced pathogens?

A

Grey squirrels brought the squirrel pox virus

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13
Q

What are the roles of the IUCN?

A

Coordinating global data on biodiversity conservation, increasing understanding of biodiversity importance and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges

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14
Q

What are the IUCN Red List categories?

A

Extinct, Extinct in the wild, Critically endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near threatened, Least concern and data-deficient

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15
Q

What criteria is assessed for species undergoing categorisation?

A

Species in habitats under particular threat, evolutionarily unique species (EDGE), endemic species, keystone species, flagship species and degree of population dispersal

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16
Q

What does the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) cover?

A

DPA (SSSI/MCZ), protection of wild birds and their nests, protection of mammals, illegal to uproot wild plants, disturbances of bats

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17
Q

What are some species in CITES Appendix I?

A

Great apes, big cats, blue whale, rhinos

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18
Q

What are some species in CITES Appendix II?

A

Common Hippo, Great White Shark, Venus fly trap

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19
Q

What are some organisation that aim for sustainable exploitation?

A

IWC, ITTO, EU CFP

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20
Q

How does the IWC control whaling?

A

Total protection for some species, designation of whale sanctuaries, setting limits, protection of suckling mothers and calves and research into whale biology

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21
Q

What habitat requirements must be met for species in captivity?

A

Habitat size, food requirements, species interrelationships and financial constraints

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22
Q

What factors can inhibit success in captive breeding programmes?

A

Conditions for breeding, population interactions and breeding success, breeding habitat, gene pool size and hybridisation

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23
Q

What are some methods to increase breeding success?

A

Cryopreservation, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, micro-propagation of plants, cloning, stud books and seed banks

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24
Q

What’s an example of embryo transfer?

A

Common Eland carries Bongo babies

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25
Q

What are the key features of successful release programmes?

A

Large enough suitable habitats, reliable food supplies, low predation risks, suitable breeding sites, water, support of local human population and legal protection of habitats

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26
Q

What problems can released individuals face?

A

Finding and recognising food, recognising poisonous foods, developing hunting skills, recognising and avoiding predators and being accepted into the social groups of the wild populations

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27
Q

What are SACs?

A

Special Areas of Conservation designated by EU Habitats Directive, protection of habitats in the EU of international importance

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28
Q

What are SPAs?

A

Special Protection Areas designated by the EU Birds Directive, protection of areas of international importance to birds

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29
Q

What are Ramsar Sites?

A

Intergovernmental agreement to protect wetlands between most countries in the world

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30
Q

What are some examples of agri-environmental schemes?

A

Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA), Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS), Environmental Stewardship Scheme (ESS) and Countryside Stewardship (CS)

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31
Q

What are the aims of agri-environmental schemes?

A

Conserve wildlife, maintain and enhance landscape, protect the historic environment, promote public access and understanding and protect natural resources

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32
Q

What features are points in agri-environmental schemes?

A

Beetle banks, hedgerow, field buffer strips, wild bird seeds, low input grassland, management to reduce soil erosion and protection of in-field trees

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33
Q

What features earn higher payments on agri-environmental schemes?

A

Wildflower grass field margins, restoration of wet grassland, water meadow restoration, maintenance of salt marshes and public access

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34
Q

What features are considered in habitat design?

A

Habitat area, biological corridors, habitat shape, habitat diversity, light levels, water depth, vegetation age structure

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35
Q

What are some abiotic habitat features that need to be controlled?

A

Dissolved oxygen, water, temperature, light levels, pH, mineral nutrients and salinity

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36
Q

What are some biotic control features in conservation methods?

A

Food, control of predation, control of competitors, pollination, seed dispersal, control pathogens, species re-introduction, control of ecological succession and population control

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37
Q

How are Rhododendron bushes harmful?

A

Competitors for light as they grow much larger

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38
Q

What is an example of species re-introduction?

A

Introduction of Gray Wolves to Yellowstone National Park USA

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39
Q

How does grazing maintain plagioclimax?

A

Prevents the establishments of taller plants and maintains grassland

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40
Q

How does mowing maintain plagioclimax?

A

Same as grazing only removes thorny, stinging or bad tasting plants as well

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41
Q

How does burning maintain plagioclimax?

A

Removes vegetation not eaten by grazing animals

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42
Q

How does coppicing maintain plagioclimax?

A

Cuts trees to ground level every 3-30 years depending the intended use of the harvested branches

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43
Q

How does pollarding maintain plagioclimax?

A

Similar to coppicing but with branches cut above height of deer to prevent them eating the re growing branches

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44
Q

How is temperature controlled?

A

Orientation of slopes, low lying valleys colder, burning gas oil or candles, transparent woven plastic cloth and keeping livestock indoors

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45
Q

How does light impact poultry?

A

Poultry grows best on shorter days, however egg laying is best on longer days

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46
Q

What are the advantages of hydroponics?

A

Nutrient supply optimal, fresher for longer, no pathogens, no weeds, attractive

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47
Q

How can soil pH be reduced?

A

Spreading powdered sulphur

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48
Q

What are endemic and epidemic pests?

A

Endemic- always present in small numbers
Epidemic- not normally present but major problem

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49
Q

What are some methods of cultural pest control?

A

Crop rotation, companion crops, predator habitats, biological control, sterile male techniques, pheromone traps, genetic resistance to disease and GM crops

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50
Q

What are some ways of controlling genetics?

A

Asexual reproduction of plants and livestock, selective breeding, crossbreeding, improved breeding techniques and GM

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51
Q

What are the advantages of GM production?

A

Individual desirable characteristics, introduction of genes from different species, increase resistance to disease and insects

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52
Q

What are the disadvantages of GM production?

A

Increased food allergies, potential gene transfer to cells of the body, wild contamination, antibiotic resistance, increased costs, reduce local indigenous crop diversity

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53
Q

What is an energy subsidy in agriculture?

A

Agricultural system with any input that aids productivity but requires the use of energy

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54
Q

What are some examples of energy subsidies?

A

Manufacture of nitrate fertiliser, manufacture of pesticides, pumping of irrigation water, fuel for machinery, manufacture of machinery, heat for drying harvested grain, processing and transport of foods

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55
Q

What is energy ratio?

A

The number of units of food energy produced per unit of energy input (higher the better)

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56
Q

What is food conversion ratio?

A

Mass of food needed to produce a given mass of livestock growth (lower the better)

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57
Q

What are the habitat impacts of agriculture?

A

Drainage, reduced biodiversity and nutrient enrichment

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58
Q

How are species introduced in agriculture?

A

Pests and biological control

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59
Q

What pollution problems occur because of agriculture?

A

Pesticides, nutrient pollution, nitrate toxicity, climate change and embodied energy

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60
Q

How can agriculture change the hydrological cycle?

A

Over-exploitation for irrigation, soil erosion/compaction and changes in evapotranspiration rates

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61
Q

What social factors influence agriculture?

A

Cultural, religious, ethical (local, seasonal, free-range, organic and fair trade)

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62
Q

What information can be collected from GPS mapping, drone and satellite surveys?

A

Rates of photosynthesis, biomass estimations, soil water content, the spread of pests and diseases and cropped area of fields

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63
Q

What were some political and economic influences on agriculture?

A

Food aid, grants, guaranteed markets, food surpluses

64
Q

What were the methods to reduce food surpluses?

A

Quotas, farm diversification, alternative crops and livestock, set-aside and agri-environmental schemes

65
Q

What are some key issues in agricultural sustainability?

A

Pest control, nutrient supplies, energy inputs, gene pool and breeding programmes, water supplies, carbon dioxide emissions, methane releases and wildlife biodiversity

66
Q

What factors influence marine productivity?

A

Variations in light levels, nutrient availability, freshwater productivity much higher

67
Q

What are the main fishing methods?

A

Demersal trawling, demersal long lines, shellfish traps, pelagic trawling, drift nets, purse seining and pelagic long lines

68
Q

What is purse seining?

A

A net is laid around a shoal of fish, the top is held up by floats and the bottom is held down by weights, this is then pulled tight underneath the shoal

69
Q

What are the environmental impacts of fishing?

A

Population decline, changed age structure, bycatch, ghost fishing and habitat damage

70
Q

What are some threatened k-species in fishing?

A

Common skate and Greenland shark

71
Q

What fishing methods have a lower bycatch?

A

Purse sein nets and pelagic trawling

72
Q

What are some examples of habitat damage as a result of fishing?

A

Seabed damage, coral reef damage, seagrass beds, dynamite fishing and food web impacts

73
Q

Why are seagrass beds ecologically important?

A

Nursery grounds for many species that live on coral reefs or deep water as adults, trawling kills the plants and sand is disturbed making re-establishment more difficult

74
Q

What are the methods to reduce environmental impacts of fishing?

A

Catch quotas, mesh size, mesh design, escape panels, acoustic deterrent devices, hook shape, decoys, sinkers, night fishing, biodegradable and radio tracked equipments, restricted fishing effort, ban drift nets, ban demersal trawling, NTZs, turtle bycatch, closed seasons, minimum catchable size, maximum catchable size, protected individuals and captive rearing and release

75
Q

What factors influence population dynamics?

A

Breeding rate, overfishing and MSY

76
Q

What are some examples of fish that have been over-exploited above the MSY?

A

Orange roughy, Atlantic cod and tuna

77
Q

Why may collecting data on fish be difficult?

A

Fish populations are often mobile and can move long distances, the distribution of fish populations is often very uneven and collecting representative data of a large enough proportion of the total area occupied is impractical

78
Q

What data can be collected from catches and how is this important?

A

Catch size, catch per unit fishing effort, mean fish size and mean age
Indicated the structure of the population changing

79
Q

What factors are considered in aquaculture?

A

Selection of species for breeding, gender control, control of pests and diseases, competition and predation, nutrition and control of abiotic factors

80
Q

What are some desirable characteristics in selection for breeding?

A

Disease resistance, rapid growth rate and good appearance e.g. bright colour

81
Q

How are rainbow trout treated to produce more females?

A

Some female trout are treated with testosterone to produce sperm with the XX chromosomes so all the offspring produced are female as female meat tastes better

82
Q

How are pests and diseases controlled in aquaculture?

A

Lower stocking density, pesticides or biological control, water flow from young to older fish tanks, circulating water currents so the fish swim in the same direction

83
Q

How is predation and competition controlled in aquaculture?

A

Fencing, netting and bird scarers
Culling

84
Q

What abiotic factors need to be controlled in aquaculture?

A

Temperature, dissolved oxygen, day length and water flow

85
Q

What are the improved methods for data collection?

A

Long-term data sets, electronic monitoring equipment, gas core analysis, isotope ice core analysis and improved carriers of monitoring equipment e.g. helium balloons, aircraft and satellites

86
Q

What are some ecosystem services?

A

Atmospheric composition, biogeochemical cycles, interspecies relationships and soil maintenance

87
Q

What are the new technologies used in ecological monitoring?

A

Satellite/radio tracking, DNA databases, eDNA, Image recognition, including software and acoustic monitoring and sonograms

88
Q

What are the methods of genetic manipulation in agriculture?

A

Selective breeding, asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation and cloning) and GM

89
Q

What are the methods of reducing the environmental impacts of aquaculture?

A

Fish farm location, control of organic wastes, lower stocking density, control escapes, control of species and methods of collecting food for fish, reduced pesticides/antibiotics and feeding control

90
Q

What are the current practises for forestry?

A

Single-age structure, growth of non-indigenous species, single species plantations and close planting

91
Q

What are the effects of deforestation?

A

Loss of resources, reduced biodiversity, fragmentation, changes to hydrology, impact on soil, and climate impacts

92
Q

What are the climate impacts of deforestation?

A

Increased albedo, reduced sequestration and reservoir and reduced rainfall downwind

93
Q

What are some systems in dynamic equillibrium?

A

GCC, hydrological cycle and population regulation

94
Q

What are some natural processes driven by renewable energy (low energy density)?

A

Hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, atmospheric circulation and thermohaline circulation

95
Q

What is biocapacity?

A

A measure of the biological productivity of an area

96
Q

What is a biodiversity buffer?

A

Land that is set aside for other species, biocapacity calculations do not include these

97
Q

What is an ecological footprint?

A

The area of the Earth’s surface that is needed to provide the resources that are used by the human population and to deal with the wastes

98
Q

What is a global hectare?

A

A hectare with a biocapacity that is average for the whole planet

99
Q

What is the carbon footprint?

A

Ecological footprint relating to carbon dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gases

100
Q

What does the Living Planet Index do?

A

Measures the state of the planet’s ecosystem in comparison to 1970

101
Q

What are the principles of the Circular Economy?

A

Cycling of materials, energy derived from renewable sources, human activities should support ecosystems, diverse systems are more resistant to change, connected systems, design of products for end of life reuse and extended use, separation of technical and biological materials, optimum production rather than maximum and technologies to design new products and improve system effectiveness

102
Q

What land uses can be modified to support natural ecosystems?

A

Urbanisation (parks), agriculture (agri-environmental schemes), forestry, fisheries, mineral exploitation (restoration) and waste management (6Rs)

103
Q

What other aspects of the Circular Economy can be applied to sustainable lifestyles?

A

Water supply management, mineral resource management, pollution control, energy supplies, food production and diverse systems (multiple renewables to overcome intermittency)

104
Q

How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in conserving biodiversity?

A

Better protection for ecosystems, development of green infrastructure, better management of fish stocks, more sustainable agriculture and forestry and better control of introduced species

105
Q

How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in waste management and pollution control?

A

Better control of urban waste water, minimal use of landfill, more recycling of electronics, recycling of used batteries, control of industrial emissions, composted materials as fertilisers, reduction of food waste, reduced use of packaging and increased recycling

106
Q

How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in water?

A

Better management in quantity and quality and more reuse of water

107
Q

How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in energy?

A

More use of biofuels, improved efficiency of fridge and freezer, increase use of waste for energy generation and increased use of renewables

108
Q

How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in design of manufactured appliances?

A

Improved design for 6Rs, reduced use of toxic materials, increased recycled materials in roads and construction, easy battery replacement and vehicle manufacture with non-toxic recycled and recyclable materials

109
Q

What happens in extensive oyster aquaculture?

A

Low inputs, oyster filter planktonic organisms from seawater, sometimes young are bred from selected adults, other systems just collect the spat off the seabed an spread them out where they grow until harvest, crab predators are removed

110
Q

What happens in shrimp aquaculture?

A

Females in hatcheries lay up to 500,000 eggs each, this is increased by eyestalk ablation where one or both eyestalks are broken off to simulate low light levels for breeding, the shrimp larvae feed on algae and zooplankton and are then moved to outdoor lagoons

111
Q

What’s the difference in extensive or intensive shrimp aquaculture?

A

Extensive systems allow the larvae to feed naturally produced algae, whereas intensive systems add nutrients (to increase algae), food pellets, exchange of water (to remove wastes) and aeration (to prevent deoxygenation from wastes)

112
Q

How is breeding controlled and monitored in salmon aquaculture?

A

Desirable characteristics are selected then the fish are stripped of eggs and milt and are mixed to allow fertilisation, the fertilised eggs are raised in aerated freshwater tank and dead or diseased eggs are removed daily, when they hatch they move through a series of tanks being fed fish meal pellets, at 12-18 months they become smolts and are ready for seawater and are fed until they reach 3-5kg

113
Q

How are limiting factors controlled in salmon aquaculture?

A

Low temp to keep dissolved oxygen high, water sprays to aerate, high flow rate to produce muscular fish, constant flow direction to reduce injuries, remove diseased fish, antibiotics and pesticides, efficient food chain by making pellets from low value fish

114
Q

How does polyculture relate to extensive systems?

A

Rearing of the fish together that aren’t competitors, increases total productivity e.g. bottom feeding fish disturb sediments and re-suspend nutrient which are important for plant and algae

115
Q

What is IMTA?

A

Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture is a polyculture system where species in different trophic levels benefit from each other
Fed aquaculture: shrimp, salmon
Inorganic extractive: algae, seaweed
Organic extractive: filter feeding shellfish (oysters)

116
Q

What are some suitable hydroponic and aquaculture species for aquaponics?

A

Hydroponic: lettuce, spinach, herbs and watercress
Aquaculture: tilapia, carp and catfish

117
Q

What are rice-fish systems?

A

Rice is grown in flooded ‘padi’ fields, fish can also be kept in the fields increasing overall food production

118
Q

How does trophic level efficiency influence aquaculture?

A

Raising herbivorous fish is much more efficient than carnivorous, fish also have much lower BMR as they don’t need energy for support or warmth, meaning they have a much lower FCR than mammals

119
Q

How does stock collection of species impact aquaculture?

A

Atlantic Blue Fin Tuna do not breed well in captivity, meaning young fish are caught in the sea then raised in captivity, the tuna aquaculture cannot continue without a wild population

120
Q

What are the environmental impacts of aquaculture?

A

Food supply impacts, habitat loss, pesticide pollution, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria, control of wild populations, lice, wild gene pool impacts, introduction of non-indigenous species and organic waste pollution

121
Q

What are the features of temperate broadleaf woodlands?

A

Regular water supple, summers not very hot, winters not very cold, seasonality

122
Q

What is the importance of temperate broadleaf woodlands?

A

High biodiversity, resources, climate control, soil erosion control, recreation

123
Q

What are the threats to temperate broadleaf woodlands?

A

Deforestation for other land use, fragmentation and management change

124
Q

What are the conservation efforts for temperate broadleaf woodlands?

A

DPA, legal protection of ancient woodland in the UK and conservation management

125
Q

What are the features of tropical rainforests?

A

Warm, high rainfall, high light levels, inter-species relationships and low seasonality

126
Q

What are the importance of tropical rainforests?

A

High biodiversity, resources, carbon sequestration, hydrological cycle and soil erosion control

127
Q

What are the threats to tropical rainforests?

A

Fuelwood collection, timber for construction and furniture, agricultural expansion, mineral extraction, reservoirs, GCC and exploitation of individual species

128
Q

What are the conservation efforts for tropical rainforests?

A

DPA, debt for nature swaps and sustainable exploitation

129
Q

What are the features of tropical coral reefs?

A

Cnidarians, nutrition systems, high light levels, warm stable temp, low turbidity and constant salinity

130
Q

What are the importances of tropical coral reefs?

A

Fisheries, coastal erosion protection, medicinal discoveries, climate control and tourism

131
Q

What are the threats to tropical coral reefs?

A

Physical damage, souvenir collection, sedimentation, climate change, pollution, fishing and introduced species

132
Q

What are the conservation efforts for tropical coral reefs?

A

Control of damaging activities (fishing), establishment of DPA, control of tourism, reef creation and sustainable exploitation

133
Q

What are the features of deep water coral reefs?

A

Cold and dark, slow growth rate of coral

134
Q

What are the importances of deep water coral reefs?

A

Research and fisheries

135
Q

What are the threats to deep water coral reefs?

A

Trawling, oil and gas exploration and ocean acidification

136
Q

What are the conservation efforts for deep water coral reefs?

A

DPA and control of damaging activities

137
Q

What are the features of oceanic islands?

A

Isolation, few or no indigenous mammal predators and endemic species

138
Q

What is the importance of oceanic islands?

A

Endemic species

139
Q

What are the threats to oceanic islands?

A

Species exploitation, introduced species, habitat change/destruction and sea level rise

140
Q

What are the conservation efforts of oceanic islands?

A

Eradication of introduced predators and control of development and visitors

141
Q

What are the features of mangroves?

A

Tropical climates, halophytic trees, low oxygen availability

142
Q

What are the importances of mangroves?

A

Coastal erosion protection, fisheries, timber supplies and trap suspended particles

143
Q

What are the threats to mangroves?

A

Clearance for urban development/aquaculture (10% lost for shrimp), coral reef destruction, pollution and global climate change

144
Q

What are the conservation efforts for mangroves?

A

Reforestation, control of damaging activities and DPA

145
Q

What are the features of Antarctica?

A

Very low temp, low precipitation, high albedo, high levels of marine nutrients, large variations in ice cover and extreme seasonal changes

146
Q

What is the importance of Antarctica?

A

Water store, ice albedo, carbon sequestration, resources and research

147
Q

What are the threats to Antarctica?

A

GCC, ozone depletion, tourism, overfishing, future mineral exploitation and scientific research

148
Q

What are the conservation efforts for Antarctica?

A

The Antarctic Treaty (1959), fisheries control, waste management and tourism control

149
Q

What’s the process for hydrosere ecological succession?

A

Freshwater colonised by algae, pond skaters and water beetles bring seeds and spores, rooting plants (reeds and lilies) colonise, more food and shelter for animals, increase DOM and soil, willow trees colonise waterlogged soil, transpiration dries soil, oaks may colonise for dense canopy

150
Q

What’s the process for lithosere ecological succession?

A

Extreme temps, limited water and no soil, lichens and algae colonise, DOM and rock fragments accumulate, mosses colonise and soil starts to build up, grasses and ferns colonise, reduced extremes, development of soil increases nutrient availability and birch trees with wind blown seeds establish

151
Q

What were agricultural grants given for after the war?

A

Hedgerow removal to increase field size, purchase of machinery, drainage of wet fields, improved livestock and liming to neutralise soils

152
Q

What’s an example of GM?

A

Bt bacterium produces toxins that kill insects, this has been isolated and transferred into crops such as corn, cotton and maize, the pollen from these crops can be carried into wild gene pools, harming wild insects

153
Q

What are the food supply impacts from aquaculture and how may these be reduced?

A

Overfishing of wild fish to make food pellets, reduces populations of the fish and species that feed on them such as seabirds, this can be reduced by using more plant products in food pellets and cultivation of herbivorous fish like tilapia

154
Q

How is pesticide pollution reduced in aquaculture?

A

Mechanical cleaning of cages and biological control with crustaceans

155
Q

What are the impacts and control for lice?

A

Reduce growth, increase risk of viral and fungal infections and may spread to wild fish populations, they can be reduced with wrasse (fish that eat lice), washing fish in warm water or single age group tanks

156
Q

What is re-wilding?

A

A form of ecological restoration to restore natural processes to an environment

157
Q

How is turtle bycatch influenced in tropical fishing areas?

A

Reducing the time that the net is towed can reduce bycatch morality, turtles are caught in shrimp trawls and if the length of trawl is <10 minutes the survival rate is 99%, is the trawl is an hour 50-100% drown

Environmental Science (22 decks)

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