P2 Flashcards
What factors influence the selection of species for agriculture?
Market demand and access, range of tolerance and species adaptations/ control of environmental conditions
What abiotic factors need to be controlled in agriculture?
Temperature, light, water, soil fertility, aeration, soil salinity, soil pH, carbon dioxide, topography and wind velocity
What’s the importance of biodiversity?
Resources, new food species, biomimetics, medicines, physiological research, pest control, genetic resources and ecosystem services
What is a new food species that has the potential for commercial cultivation?
The Potato Bean of North America has a high protein content
What’s an example of pest control species?
Bt bacterium introduced to control insect crop pests
What are some ecosystem services from biodiversity?
Atmospheric composition, hydrological cycle, biogeochemical cycles, soil maintenance, interspecies relationships, food, pollination, seed dispersal and habitat provision
What are the threats to biodiversity?
Direct exploitation, changes in abiotic/ biotic conditions, habitat destruction, eradication of predators/competitors and introduced species
What are some examples of direct exploitation of species?
Food, pets/entertainment, fashion, furniture and ornaments and traditional medicines
How can introduced species impact biodiversity?
Competitors, predators, pathogens, hybridise, loss of control of abiotic facotrs
What’s an example of introduced competitors?
Grey squirrel in UK from North America
What’s an example of introduced predators?
Cane Toads in Australia from South America
What’s an example of introduced pathogens?
Grey squirrels brought the squirrel pox virus
What are the roles of the IUCN?
Coordinating global data on biodiversity conservation, increasing understanding of biodiversity importance and deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges
What are the IUCN Red List categories?
Extinct, Extinct in the wild, Critically endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near threatened, Least concern and data-deficient
What criteria is assessed for species undergoing categorisation?
Species in habitats under particular threat, evolutionarily unique species (EDGE), endemic species, keystone species, flagship species and degree of population dispersal
What does the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) cover?
DPA (SSSI/MCZ), protection of wild birds and their nests, protection of mammals, illegal to uproot wild plants, disturbances of bats
What are some species in CITES Appendix I?
Great apes, big cats, blue whale, rhinos
What are some species in CITES Appendix II?
Common Hippo, Great White Shark, Venus fly trap
What are some organisation that aim for sustainable exploitation?
IWC, ITTO, EU CFP
How does the IWC control whaling?
Total protection for some species, designation of whale sanctuaries, setting limits, protection of suckling mothers and calves and research into whale biology
What habitat requirements must be met for species in captivity?
Habitat size, food requirements, species interrelationships and financial constraints
What factors can inhibit success in captive breeding programmes?
Conditions for breeding, population interactions and breeding success, breeding habitat, gene pool size and hybridisation
What are some methods to increase breeding success?
Cryopreservation, artificial insemination, embryo transfer, micro-propagation of plants, cloning, stud books and seed banks
What’s an example of embryo transfer?
Common Eland carries Bongo babies
What are the key features of successful release programmes?
Large enough suitable habitats, reliable food supplies, low predation risks, suitable breeding sites, water, support of local human population and legal protection of habitats
What problems can released individuals face?
Finding and recognising food, recognising poisonous foods, developing hunting skills, recognising and avoiding predators and being accepted into the social groups of the wild populations
What are SACs?
Special Areas of Conservation designated by EU Habitats Directive, protection of habitats in the EU of international importance
What are SPAs?
Special Protection Areas designated by the EU Birds Directive, protection of areas of international importance to birds
What are Ramsar Sites?
Intergovernmental agreement to protect wetlands between most countries in the world
What are some examples of agri-environmental schemes?
Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA), Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS), Environmental Stewardship Scheme (ESS) and Countryside Stewardship (CS)
What are the aims of agri-environmental schemes?
Conserve wildlife, maintain and enhance landscape, protect the historic environment, promote public access and understanding and protect natural resources
What features are points in agri-environmental schemes?
Beetle banks, hedgerow, field buffer strips, wild bird seeds, low input grassland, management to reduce soil erosion and protection of in-field trees
What features earn higher payments on agri-environmental schemes?
Wildflower grass field margins, restoration of wet grassland, water meadow restoration, maintenance of salt marshes and public access
What features are considered in habitat design?
Habitat area, biological corridors, habitat shape, habitat diversity, light levels, water depth, vegetation age structure
What are some abiotic habitat features that need to be controlled?
Dissolved oxygen, water, temperature, light levels, pH, mineral nutrients and salinity
What are some biotic control features in conservation methods?
Food, control of predation, control of competitors, pollination, seed dispersal, control pathogens, species re-introduction, control of ecological succession and population control
How are Rhododendron bushes harmful?
Competitors for light as they grow much larger
What is an example of species re-introduction?
Introduction of Gray Wolves to Yellowstone National Park USA
How does grazing maintain plagioclimax?
Prevents the establishments of taller plants and maintains grassland
How does mowing maintain plagioclimax?
Same as grazing only removes thorny, stinging or bad tasting plants as well
How does burning maintain plagioclimax?
Removes vegetation not eaten by grazing animals
How does coppicing maintain plagioclimax?
Cuts trees to ground level every 3-30 years depending the intended use of the harvested branches
How does pollarding maintain plagioclimax?
Similar to coppicing but with branches cut above height of deer to prevent them eating the re growing branches
How is temperature controlled?
Orientation of slopes, low lying valleys colder, burning gas oil or candles, transparent woven plastic cloth and keeping livestock indoors
How does light impact poultry?
Poultry grows best on shorter days, however egg laying is best on longer days
What are the advantages of hydroponics?
Nutrient supply optimal, fresher for longer, no pathogens, no weeds, attractive
How can soil pH be reduced?
Spreading powdered sulphur
What are endemic and epidemic pests?
Endemic- always present in small numbers
Epidemic- not normally present but major problem
What are some methods of cultural pest control?
Crop rotation, companion crops, predator habitats, biological control, sterile male techniques, pheromone traps, genetic resistance to disease and GM crops
What are some ways of controlling genetics?
Asexual reproduction of plants and livestock, selective breeding, crossbreeding, improved breeding techniques and GM
What are the advantages of GM production?
Individual desirable characteristics, introduction of genes from different species, increase resistance to disease and insects
What are the disadvantages of GM production?
Increased food allergies, potential gene transfer to cells of the body, wild contamination, antibiotic resistance, increased costs, reduce local indigenous crop diversity
What is an energy subsidy in agriculture?
Agricultural system with any input that aids productivity but requires the use of energy
What are some examples of energy subsidies?
Manufacture of nitrate fertiliser, manufacture of pesticides, pumping of irrigation water, fuel for machinery, manufacture of machinery, heat for drying harvested grain, processing and transport of foods
What is energy ratio?
The number of units of food energy produced per unit of energy input (higher the better)
What is food conversion ratio?
Mass of food needed to produce a given mass of livestock growth (lower the better)
What are the habitat impacts of agriculture?
Drainage, reduced biodiversity and nutrient enrichment
How are species introduced in agriculture?
Pests and biological control
What pollution problems occur because of agriculture?
Pesticides, nutrient pollution, nitrate toxicity, climate change and embodied energy
How can agriculture change the hydrological cycle?
Over-exploitation for irrigation, soil erosion/compaction and changes in evapotranspiration rates
What social factors influence agriculture?
Cultural, religious, ethical (local, seasonal, free-range, organic and fair trade)
What information can be collected from GPS mapping, drone and satellite surveys?
Rates of photosynthesis, biomass estimations, soil water content, the spread of pests and diseases and cropped area of fields
What were some political and economic influences on agriculture?
Food aid, grants, guaranteed markets, food surpluses
What were the methods to reduce food surpluses?
Quotas, farm diversification, alternative crops and livestock, set-aside and agri-environmental schemes
What are some key issues in agricultural sustainability?
Pest control, nutrient supplies, energy inputs, gene pool and breeding programmes, water supplies, carbon dioxide emissions, methane releases and wildlife biodiversity
What factors influence marine productivity?
Variations in light levels, nutrient availability, freshwater productivity much higher
What are the main fishing methods?
Demersal trawling, demersal long lines, shellfish traps, pelagic trawling, drift nets, purse seining and pelagic long lines
What is purse seining?
A net is laid around a shoal of fish, the top is held up by floats and the bottom is held down by weights, this is then pulled tight underneath the shoal
What are the environmental impacts of fishing?
Population decline, changed age structure, bycatch, ghost fishing and habitat damage
What are some threatened k-species in fishing?
Common skate and Greenland shark
What fishing methods have a lower bycatch?
Purse sein nets and pelagic trawling
What are some examples of habitat damage as a result of fishing?
Seabed damage, coral reef damage, seagrass beds, dynamite fishing and food web impacts
Why are seagrass beds ecologically important?
Nursery grounds for many species that live on coral reefs or deep water as adults, trawling kills the plants and sand is disturbed making re-establishment more difficult
What are the methods to reduce environmental impacts of fishing?
Catch quotas, mesh size, mesh design, escape panels, acoustic deterrent devices, hook shape, decoys, sinkers, night fishing, biodegradable and radio tracked equipments, restricted fishing effort, ban drift nets, ban demersal trawling, NTZs, turtle bycatch, closed seasons, minimum catchable size, maximum catchable size, protected individuals and captive rearing and release
What factors influence population dynamics?
Breeding rate, overfishing and MSY
What are some examples of fish that have been over-exploited above the MSY?
Orange roughy, Atlantic cod and tuna
Why may collecting data on fish be difficult?
Fish populations are often mobile and can move long distances, the distribution of fish populations is often very uneven and collecting representative data of a large enough proportion of the total area occupied is impractical
What data can be collected from catches and how is this important?
Catch size, catch per unit fishing effort, mean fish size and mean age
Indicated the structure of the population changing
What factors are considered in aquaculture?
Selection of species for breeding, gender control, control of pests and diseases, competition and predation, nutrition and control of abiotic factors
What are some desirable characteristics in selection for breeding?
Disease resistance, rapid growth rate and good appearance e.g. bright colour
How are rainbow trout treated to produce more females?
Some female trout are treated with testosterone to produce sperm with the XX chromosomes so all the offspring produced are female as female meat tastes better
How are pests and diseases controlled in aquaculture?
Lower stocking density, pesticides or biological control, water flow from young to older fish tanks, circulating water currents so the fish swim in the same direction
How is predation and competition controlled in aquaculture?
Fencing, netting and bird scarers
Culling
What abiotic factors need to be controlled in aquaculture?
Temperature, dissolved oxygen, day length and water flow
What are the improved methods for data collection?
Long-term data sets, electronic monitoring equipment, gas core analysis, isotope ice core analysis and improved carriers of monitoring equipment e.g. helium balloons, aircraft and satellites
What are some ecosystem services?
Atmospheric composition, biogeochemical cycles, interspecies relationships and soil maintenance
What are the new technologies used in ecological monitoring?
Satellite/radio tracking, DNA databases, eDNA, Image recognition, including software and acoustic monitoring and sonograms
What are the methods of genetic manipulation in agriculture?
Selective breeding, asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation and cloning) and GM
What are the methods of reducing the environmental impacts of aquaculture?
Fish farm location, control of organic wastes, lower stocking density, control escapes, control of species and methods of collecting food for fish, reduced pesticides/antibiotics and feeding control
What are the current practises for forestry?
Single-age structure, growth of non-indigenous species, single species plantations and close planting
What are the effects of deforestation?
Loss of resources, reduced biodiversity, fragmentation, changes to hydrology, impact on soil, and climate impacts
What are the climate impacts of deforestation?
Increased albedo, reduced sequestration and reservoir and reduced rainfall downwind
What are some systems in dynamic equillibrium?
GCC, hydrological cycle and population regulation
What are some natural processes driven by renewable energy (low energy density)?
Hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, atmospheric circulation and thermohaline circulation
What is biocapacity?
A measure of the biological productivity of an area
What is a biodiversity buffer?
Land that is set aside for other species, biocapacity calculations do not include these
What is an ecological footprint?
The area of the Earth’s surface that is needed to provide the resources that are used by the human population and to deal with the wastes
What is a global hectare?
A hectare with a biocapacity that is average for the whole planet
What is the carbon footprint?
Ecological footprint relating to carbon dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gases
What does the Living Planet Index do?
Measures the state of the planet’s ecosystem in comparison to 1970
What are the principles of the Circular Economy?
Cycling of materials, energy derived from renewable sources, human activities should support ecosystems, diverse systems are more resistant to change, connected systems, design of products for end of life reuse and extended use, separation of technical and biological materials, optimum production rather than maximum and technologies to design new products and improve system effectiveness
What land uses can be modified to support natural ecosystems?
Urbanisation (parks), agriculture (agri-environmental schemes), forestry, fisheries, mineral exploitation (restoration) and waste management (6Rs)
What other aspects of the Circular Economy can be applied to sustainable lifestyles?
Water supply management, mineral resource management, pollution control, energy supplies, food production and diverse systems (multiple renewables to overcome intermittency)
How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in conserving biodiversity?
Better protection for ecosystems, development of green infrastructure, better management of fish stocks, more sustainable agriculture and forestry and better control of introduced species
How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in waste management and pollution control?
Better control of urban waste water, minimal use of landfill, more recycling of electronics, recycling of used batteries, control of industrial emissions, composted materials as fertilisers, reduction of food waste, reduced use of packaging and increased recycling
How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in water?
Better management in quantity and quality and more reuse of water
How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in energy?
More use of biofuels, improved efficiency of fridge and freezer, increase use of waste for energy generation and increased use of renewables
How has the EU supported the Circular Economy in design of manufactured appliances?
Improved design for 6Rs, reduced use of toxic materials, increased recycled materials in roads and construction, easy battery replacement and vehicle manufacture with non-toxic recycled and recyclable materials
What happens in extensive oyster aquaculture?
Low inputs, oyster filter planktonic organisms from seawater, sometimes young are bred from selected adults, other systems just collect the spat off the seabed an spread them out where they grow until harvest, crab predators are removed
What happens in shrimp aquaculture?
Females in hatcheries lay up to 500,000 eggs each, this is increased by eyestalk ablation where one or both eyestalks are broken off to simulate low light levels for breeding, the shrimp larvae feed on algae and zooplankton and are then moved to outdoor lagoons
What’s the difference in extensive or intensive shrimp aquaculture?
Extensive systems allow the larvae to feed naturally produced algae, whereas intensive systems add nutrients (to increase algae), food pellets, exchange of water (to remove wastes) and aeration (to prevent deoxygenation from wastes)
How is breeding controlled and monitored in salmon aquaculture?
Desirable characteristics are selected then the fish are stripped of eggs and milt and are mixed to allow fertilisation, the fertilised eggs are raised in aerated freshwater tank and dead or diseased eggs are removed daily, when they hatch they move through a series of tanks being fed fish meal pellets, at 12-18 months they become smolts and are ready for seawater and are fed until they reach 3-5kg
How are limiting factors controlled in salmon aquaculture?
Low temp to keep dissolved oxygen high, water sprays to aerate, high flow rate to produce muscular fish, constant flow direction to reduce injuries, remove diseased fish, antibiotics and pesticides, efficient food chain by making pellets from low value fish
How does polyculture relate to extensive systems?
Rearing of the fish together that aren’t competitors, increases total productivity e.g. bottom feeding fish disturb sediments and re-suspend nutrient which are important for plant and algae
What is IMTA?
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture is a polyculture system where species in different trophic levels benefit from each other
Fed aquaculture: shrimp, salmon
Inorganic extractive: algae, seaweed
Organic extractive: filter feeding shellfish (oysters)
What are some suitable hydroponic and aquaculture species for aquaponics?
Hydroponic: lettuce, spinach, herbs and watercress
Aquaculture: tilapia, carp and catfish
What are rice-fish systems?
Rice is grown in flooded ‘padi’ fields, fish can also be kept in the fields increasing overall food production
How does trophic level efficiency influence aquaculture?
Raising herbivorous fish is much more efficient than carnivorous, fish also have much lower BMR as they don’t need energy for support or warmth, meaning they have a much lower FCR than mammals
How does stock collection of species impact aquaculture?
Atlantic Blue Fin Tuna do not breed well in captivity, meaning young fish are caught in the sea then raised in captivity, the tuna aquaculture cannot continue without a wild population
What are the environmental impacts of aquaculture?
Food supply impacts, habitat loss, pesticide pollution, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria, control of wild populations, lice, wild gene pool impacts, introduction of non-indigenous species and organic waste pollution
What are the features of temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Regular water supple, summers not very hot, winters not very cold, seasonality
What is the importance of temperate broadleaf woodlands?
High biodiversity, resources, climate control, soil erosion control, recreation
What are the threats to temperate broadleaf woodlands?
Deforestation for other land use, fragmentation and management change
What are the conservation efforts for temperate broadleaf woodlands?
DPA, legal protection of ancient woodland in the UK and conservation management
What are the features of tropical rainforests?
Warm, high rainfall, high light levels, inter-species relationships and low seasonality
What are the importance of tropical rainforests?
High biodiversity, resources, carbon sequestration, hydrological cycle and soil erosion control
What are the threats to tropical rainforests?
Fuelwood collection, timber for construction and furniture, agricultural expansion, mineral extraction, reservoirs, GCC and exploitation of individual species
What are the conservation efforts for tropical rainforests?
DPA, debt for nature swaps and sustainable exploitation
What are the features of tropical coral reefs?
Cnidarians, nutrition systems, high light levels, warm stable temp, low turbidity and constant salinity
What are the importances of tropical coral reefs?
Fisheries, coastal erosion protection, medicinal discoveries, climate control and tourism
What are the threats to tropical coral reefs?
Physical damage, souvenir collection, sedimentation, climate change, pollution, fishing and introduced species
What are the conservation efforts for tropical coral reefs?
Control of damaging activities (fishing), establishment of DPA, control of tourism, reef creation and sustainable exploitation
What are the features of deep water coral reefs?
Cold and dark, slow growth rate of coral
What are the importances of deep water coral reefs?
Research and fisheries
What are the threats to deep water coral reefs?
Trawling, oil and gas exploration and ocean acidification
What are the conservation efforts for deep water coral reefs?
DPA and control of damaging activities
What are the features of oceanic islands?
Isolation, few or no indigenous mammal predators and endemic species
What is the importance of oceanic islands?
Endemic species
What are the threats to oceanic islands?
Species exploitation, introduced species, habitat change/destruction and sea level rise
What are the conservation efforts of oceanic islands?
Eradication of introduced predators and control of development and visitors
What are the features of mangroves?
Tropical climates, halophytic trees, low oxygen availability
What are the importances of mangroves?
Coastal erosion protection, fisheries, timber supplies and trap suspended particles
What are the threats to mangroves?
Clearance for urban development/aquaculture (10% lost for shrimp), coral reef destruction, pollution and global climate change
What are the conservation efforts for mangroves?
Reforestation, control of damaging activities and DPA
What are the features of Antarctica?
Very low temp, low precipitation, high albedo, high levels of marine nutrients, large variations in ice cover and extreme seasonal changes
What is the importance of Antarctica?
Water store, ice albedo, carbon sequestration, resources and research
What are the threats to Antarctica?
GCC, ozone depletion, tourism, overfishing, future mineral exploitation and scientific research
What are the conservation efforts for Antarctica?
The Antarctic Treaty (1959), fisheries control, waste management and tourism control
What’s the process for hydrosere ecological succession?
Freshwater colonised by algae, pond skaters and water beetles bring seeds and spores, rooting plants (reeds and lilies) colonise, more food and shelter for animals, increase DOM and soil, willow trees colonise waterlogged soil, transpiration dries soil, oaks may colonise for dense canopy
What’s the process for lithosere ecological succession?
Extreme temps, limited water and no soil, lichens and algae colonise, DOM and rock fragments accumulate, mosses colonise and soil starts to build up, grasses and ferns colonise, reduced extremes, development of soil increases nutrient availability and birch trees with wind blown seeds establish
What were agricultural grants given for after the war?
Hedgerow removal to increase field size, purchase of machinery, drainage of wet fields, improved livestock and liming to neutralise soils
What’s an example of GM?
Bt bacterium produces toxins that kill insects, this has been isolated and transferred into crops such as corn, cotton and maize, the pollen from these crops can be carried into wild gene pools, harming wild insects
What are the food supply impacts from aquaculture and how may these be reduced?
Overfishing of wild fish to make food pellets, reduces populations of the fish and species that feed on them such as seabirds, this can be reduced by using more plant products in food pellets and cultivation of herbivorous fish like tilapia
How is pesticide pollution reduced in aquaculture?
Mechanical cleaning of cages and biological control with crustaceans
What are the impacts and control for lice?
Reduce growth, increase risk of viral and fungal infections and may spread to wild fish populations, they can be reduced with wrasse (fish that eat lice), washing fish in warm water or single age group tanks
What is re-wilding?
A form of ecological restoration to restore natural processes to an environment
How is turtle bycatch influenced in tropical fishing areas?
Reducing the time that the net is towed can reduce bycatch morality, turtles are caught in shrimp trawls and if the length of trawl is <10 minutes the survival rate is 99%, is the trawl is an hour 50-100% drown
